AGN is asymptomatic in approximately 50% of patients. In those who present with symptoms, the initial presentation is peripheral edema, low urine volume, and dark-colored urine due to hematuria.The reduction in GFR coupled with the salt and water retention in the distal tubule results in an increased intravascular volume, edema, and systemic hypertension. Edema appears as facial and periorbital swelling initially, before becoming obvious in the lower extremities. Elevated blood pressure progresses with the kidney damage. Non-specific symptoms are also common and include nausea, malaise, and dizziness.

Fever and fatigue are the most frequent presentations of rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis. Other symptoms include nausea, anorexia, vomiting, arthralgia, and abdominal pain. Furthermore in these cases, hypertension is usually absent or mild.

The symptoms of acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis include passage of coke-colored or dark brown urine, hypertension, facial puffiness and pedal edema, and proteinuria on urinalysis [11]. Occasionally, the complications of hypertension such as seizures and persistent headaches may be the only presentations of the patient.

• Fever

  Keywords: Acute glomerulonephritis, dengue hemorrhagic fever, glomerular cast, hypertension, hematuria How to cite this article: Meena K R, Kumar P, Anita, Paul P. Acute glomerulonephritis in dengue hemorrhagic fever: A rare case report. [atmph.org]

  Acute glomerulonephritis occurring during the course of enteric fever is a rare entity and only a few cases have been reported in the published literature. We describe two interesting cases of acute glomerulonephritis occurring in twin siblings. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis

  95% recover with conservative therapy; 1% develop rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis, 1 - 2% develop chronic glomerulonephritis Poor prognosis more likely if massive proteinuria and abnormal GFR; 2 - 5% die from pulmonary edema, hypertensive encephalopathy [pathologyoutlines.com]

  AGN due to these autoimmune diseases is most likely associated with rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis. [symptoma.com]

  Conclusion: postinfectious CGN is a severe form of glomerulonephritis that usually presents with rapidly progressive renal failure. [doi.org]

  Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis For rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis, drugs to suppress the immune system are started promptly. [merckmanuals.com]

• Congestive Heart Failure

  She was referred by her primary care physician for suspected congestive heart failure but she had an elevated creatinine level and an abnormal urinalysis. Renal biopsy showed diffuse endocapillary proliferative glomerulonephritis. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  This is secondary to congestive heart failure and azotemia. Congestive heart failure is more common in adults (43%) than in children (< 5%). Nephrotic-range proteinuria is also more common in adults (20%) than in children (4-10%). [emedicine.com]

  IN acute glomerulonephritis the systemic manifestations of hypertension, edema and congestive heart failure result, in large part, from salt and water retention whereas hematuria and proteinuria are direct expressions of the inflammatory process in the [nejm.org]

• Malaise

  Among the signs and symptoms of acute proliferative glomerulonephritis are the following: Hematuria Oliguria Edema Hypertension Fever (headache, malaise, anorexia, nausea.) [en.wikipedia.org]

  […] pulmonary edema, hypertensive encephalopathy or crescentic glomerulonephritis; children with obesity may have greater renal injuries ( Clin Nephrol 2009;71:632 ) Children age 6 - 10 : nephritic presentation with abrupt onset of hematuria, oliguria, fever, malaise [pathologyoutlines.com]

  […] that may occur include: Blurred vision, usually from burst blood vessels in the retina of the eye Cough containing mucus or pink, frothy material from fluid buildup in the lungs Shortness of breath, from fluid buildup in the lungs General ill feeling (malaise [nlm.nih.gov]

• Weight Gain

  Body weight gain ranged from 3 to 10 kg. Three of the patients had contact with erythema infectiosum simultaneously with or within 10 days before development of flu-like symptoms. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms PSGN Onset of symptoms occurs 1 to 6 weeks after infection; symptoms include hypertension, headache, edema, oliguria, dark urine, reduced urine output, flank pain, weight gain, fever, chills, nausea, and vomiting; about half of cases are asymptomatic [medi-info.com]

  Despite corticosteroids being effective, in many patients high doses for prolonged periods can have significant side affects including: weight gain, hyperglycemia, destruction of bones, easy bruising, and thinning of the skin. [nephrocor.com]

  (weight gain is the earliest sign of fluid retention): use same standing scale every day. [registerednursern.com]

• Vomiting

  Post-infectious acute glomerulonephritis with hypertensive encephalopathy is characterized by episodic hypertension with headache, vomiting, and hematuria. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Nausea

  Amlodipine: edema, headache, fatigue, palpitations, nausea. Labetalol: bradycardia, bronchospasm, headache, nausea, arrhythmia. [clinicaladvisor.com]

  Among the signs and symptoms of acute proliferative glomerulonephritis are the following: Hematuria Oliguria Edema Hypertension Fever (headache, malaise, anorexia, nausea.) [en.wikipedia.org]

  […] hypertensive encephalopathy or crescentic glomerulonephritis; children with obesity may have greater renal injuries ( Clin Nephrol 2009;71:632 ) Children age 6 - 10 : nephritic presentation with abrupt onset of hematuria, oliguria, fever, malaise and nausea [pathologyoutlines.com]

  Other symptoms include nausea, anorexia, vomiting, arthralgia, and abdominal pain. Furthermore in these cases, hypertension is usually absent or mild. [symptoma.com]

  Symptoms PSGN Onset of symptoms occurs 1 to 6 weeks after infection; symptoms include hypertension, headache, edema, oliguria, dark urine, reduced urine output, flank pain, weight gain, fever, chills, nausea, and vomiting; about half of cases are asymptomatic [medi-info.com]

• Abdominal Pain

  Presenting concerns of the patient: We report the case of a 64-year-old man with alcohol-associated cirrhosis, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and hypertension who presented to hospital with lower back and abdominal pain, rectal bleeding, a purpuric lower extremity [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  pain Chronic Glomerulonephritis Prevention There is no known way to prevent chronic glomerulonephritis. [healthcommunities.com]

  Other signs Pharyngitis Impetigo Respiratory infection Pulmonary hemorrhage Heart murmur may indicate endocarditis Scarlet fever Weight gain Abdominal pain Anorexia Back pain Skin pallor Palpable purpura in patients with Henoch-Schönlein purpura Oral [sites.google.com]

  […] symptoms of glomerulonephritis are: Blood in the urine (dark, rust-colored, or brown urine) Foamy urine (due to excess protein in the urine) Swelling (edema) of the face, eyes, ankles, feet, legs, or abdomen Symptoms may also include the following: Abdominal [mountsinai.org]

  Other symptoms include nausea, anorexia, vomiting, arthralgia, and abdominal pain. Furthermore in these cases, hypertension is usually absent or mild. [symptoma.com]

• Loss of Appetite

  […] of appetite; overall itching; headache; easy bruising; frequent hiccups or bleeding; and impaired vision Increased pigmentation of the skin Abdominal pain Chronic Glomerulonephritis Prevention There is no known way to prevent chronic glomerulonephritis [healthcommunities.com]

  […] of appetite and vomiting. [yourkidshealth.net]

  This can lead to nausea, loss of appetite, and fatigue Chronic glomerulonephritis: It develops slowly over years, as the kidneys are not effectively filtering blood. [dovemed.com]

  […] of appetite Joint or muscle aches Nosebleed The symptoms of chronic kidney disease may develop over time. [mountsinai.org]

  When kidney failure is severe or near end stage, symptoms include: confusion decreased urination fatigue headache high blood pressure itchy skin loss of appetite muscle twitching or cramping nausea and vomiting nosebleeds puffy eyes, hands, and feet [chealth.canoe.com]

• Hypertension

  Post-infectious acute glomerulonephritis with hypertensive encephalopathy is characterized by episodic hypertension with headache, vomiting, and hematuria. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Severe hypertension Severe hypertension, or that associated with signs of cerebral dysfunction, demands immediate attention. Debate exists regarding the agent that is most effective in patients with severe hypertension. [emedicine.medscape.com]

  Complications • Pulmonary edema • Hypertensive encephalopathy • Renal failure 13. Prognosis • Excellent in children • Small number of adult develops persistant hypertension or renal impairment later in life. 14. [slideshare.net]

• Back Pain

  Learn about this topic in these articles: description In Bright disease Acute glomerulonephritis is characterized by severe inflammation, renal (kidney) insufficiency, swelling, increased blood pressure, and severe back pain. [britannica.com]

  Other signs Pharyngitis Impetigo Respiratory infection Pulmonary hemorrhage Heart murmur may indicate endocarditis Scarlet fever Weight gain Abdominal pain Anorexia Back pain Skin pallor Palpable purpura in patients with Henoch-Schönlein purpura Oral [sites.google.com]

  Background Hippocrates originally described the natural history of acute GN, writing of back pain and hematuria followed by oliguria or anuria. [emedicine.medscape.com]

• Facial Edema

  Abstract Acute glomerulonephritis (AGN) manifests with abrupt onset of hematuria, facial edema, hypertension and impairment of renal function. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Facial edema, or swelling, is common which tends to be more prominent in the morning. This edema tends to spread to the extremities and the abdomen during the day. [yourkidshealth.net]

  Most often, the patient is a boy, aged 2-14 years, who suddenly develops puffiness of the eyelids and facial edema in the setting of a poststreptococcal infection. The urine is dark and scanty, and the blood pressure may be elevated. [sites.google.com]

• Facial Swelling

  We used these data to categorise children by history during the epidemics: The PSGN group had documented oedema (facial swelling or dependent oedema) or hypertension (diastolic pressure ≥ 80 mmHg if aged 2-12 years and ≥ 85 mmHg if over 12, levels corresponding [mja.com.au]

• Hematuria

  Although his hematuria and hypocomplementemia spontaneously subsided within a month, proteinuria remained. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  One of Cohen and Levitt's cases had no hematuria and essentially no proteinuria. Berman and Vogelsang's case had no proteinuria, but there was clear-cut hematuria and cylindruria. The FULL TEXT [annals.org]

• Oliguria

  Poststreptococcal gomerulonephritis • Onset abrupt with – Puffness of face – Oliguria – Smoky urine – Reddish urine – Hypertension – Oedema 16. [slideshare.net]

  We report the case of a 10-year-old boy with acute glomerulonephritis who presented with gross hematuria, headache, vomiting, and oliguria, and developed transient cortical blindness as a complication of hypertensive encephalopathy. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Anuria or oliguria Anuria or severe and persistent oliguria may occur in 3-6% of children with acute glomerulonephritis and may necessitate hospitalization. Fortunately, both of these conditions are usually transient. [emedicine.medscape.com]

• Dark Urine

  Symptoms PSGN Onset of symptoms occurs 1 to 6 weeks after infection; symptoms include hypertension, headache, edema, oliguria, dark urine, reduced urine output, flank pain, weight gain, fever, chills, nausea, and vomiting; about half of cases are asymptomatic [medi-info.com]

  If symptoms appear, they can include swelling around the feet, ankles, lower legs, and eyes, reduced urination and dark urine (due to the presence of red blood cells in the urine). [drugs.com]

  However, those who come down with symptoms may present with swelling of the face and legs, reduced urine volume, passage of coke-colored or dark urine, urine frothiness and a high blood pressure. [symptoma.com]

  The dark urine is due to the oxidation of hemoglobin that turns brown after a prolonged time in an acidic environment. Gross hematuria may last up to 10 days and recur after a febrile illness. [emedicine.medscape.com]

• Macroscopic Hematuria

  The macroscopic hematuria and proteinuria occurred on 5th day of G-CSF administration. Due to mobilization and collection of stem cells, proteinuria was becoming more intense and reached the nephrotic range. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Source: Public Health Image Library, CDC Clinical Features The clinical features of acute glomerulonephritis include: Edema (often pronounced facial and orbital edema, especially on arising in the morning) Hypertension Proteinuria Macroscopic hematuria [cdc.gov]

  Nephrotic syndrome was present in one patient with HBV-PIGN and two patients with non-HBV associated PIGN and was treated with glucocorticoid. 4 patients with HBV-PIGN and 6 patients with non-HBV associated PIGN had macroscopic hematuria. [journals.plos.org]

• Smoky Urine

  Poststreptococcal gomerulonephritis • Onset abrupt with – Puffness of face – Oliguria – Smoky urine – Reddish urine – Hypertension – Oedema 16. [slideshare.net]

  The most important symptoms noted were weight gain, edema, dyspnea, oliguria and red or smoky urine. The most prominent physical signs were elevated blood pressure, edema, abnormalities in the chest and fever of over 100° F. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Headache

  Post-infectious acute glomerulonephritis with hypertensive encephalopathy is characterized by episodic hypertension with headache, vomiting, and hematuria. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] or other symptoms of high blood pressure In severe cases, symptoms of kidney failure, including fatigue; seizures; nausea and vomiting; loss of appetite; overall itching; headache; easy bruising; frequent hiccups or bleeding; and impaired vision Increased [healthcommunities.com]

  Among the signs and symptoms of acute proliferative glomerulonephritis are the following: Hematuria Oliguria Edema Hypertension Fever (headache, malaise, anorexia, nausea.) [en.wikipedia.org]

  Symptoms PSGN Onset of symptoms occurs 1 to 6 weeks after infection; symptoms include hypertension, headache, edema, oliguria, dark urine, reduced urine output, flank pain, weight gain, fever, chills, nausea, and vomiting; about half of cases are asymptomatic [medi-info.com]

• Guillain-Barré Syndrome

  To our knowledge this is the first report of an association between ex novo episodes of acute glomerulonephritis and Guillain-Barré syndrome. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Miscellaneous noninfectious causes of acute GN include the following: Guillain-Barré syndrome Irradiation of Wilms tumor Diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus (DPT) vaccine Serum sickness Epidermal growth factor receptor activation, [10] and possibly its inhibition [emedicine.medscape.com]

  Differential Diagnoses Amyloidosis, Familial Renal Pediatrics, Fever Angioedema Pediatrics, Pharyngitis Ascites Pharyngitis Cirrhosis Renal Failure, Acute Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 Rheumatic Fever Guillain-Barré Syndrome Scarlet Fever Heart Failure Serum [sites.google.com]

• Papilledema

  Other signs and symptoms were fever 19%, arthralgia 4%, epistaxis 6% and bilateral papilledema 1% (Figure 3). Laboratory investigations Urinalysis showed haematuria in 90% and atleast 1+ proteinuria in 77% of patients. [jpma.org.pk]

No symptom or sign is pathognomonic of AGN. Laboratory tests are, therefore, necessary to confirm a suspected case of AGN.

Urinalysis is necessary and may reveal red blood cell and white blood cell casts. Red blood cell casts are indicative of glomerular damage while the white cell casts are indicative of infection or inflammation of the nephron. Urinalysis also reveals proteinuria. Blood investigations necessary for diagnosis are tests for creatinine and urea levels.

Imaging studies such as abdominal plain radiographs, ultrasonography, and computed tomography (CT) scans may be necessary. However, a kidney biopsy is the definitive diagnostic modality to confirm AGN [12].

• Creatinine Increased

  Her course was prolonged with serum creatinine increased from the baseline level of 1.1 mg/dl to 2.2 mg/dl, returning toward the baseline level (1.2 mg/dl) after one month. Serum creatinine then started to increase again. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

The management of AGN involves treatment of the underlying trigger, supportive care, and conservative management of the complications of the disease.

Diuretics are necessary to resolve the edema and antihypertensives are equally vital [13]. Furthermore, dietary modifications should consist of low protein diet and salt restriction. Antibiotics are administered in cases of infectious AGN, however, antibiotics may be ineffective since the nephritis occurs 1 to 6 weeks after the inciting infection. Typically, the infection resolves before the onset of the nephritis, however, if the infection still persists, antibiotics can be administered.

Corticosteroids are administered in cases of AGN triggered by autoimmune disease and in rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis. High dose corticosteroids are administered intravenously for up to 7 days after which they are switched to oral forms. Immunosuppressants may also be beneficial for these patients [14]. Plasmapheresis may also be a beneficial procedure to clear off antibodies from the blood. 

Generally, prompt diagnosis and treatment prevents progression of the disease to ESRD. Renal transplantation is the definitive treatment for ESRD; however, rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis may reappear in the transplanted kidney.

Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis and IgA nephropathy have a minimal risk of progressing to chronic kidney disease if the underlying pathology is treated well in time. Complete resolution of symptoms is observed in most patients, especially children.

For other glomerular pathologies, the outcome is generally better if the patient presents with asymptomatic hematuria open link and proteinuria and in those with focal instead of diffuse glomerular changes on renal biopsy. Patients with diffuse glomerular involvement usually have a poorer prognosis.

Generally, poor prognostic factors include severe proteinuria, severe renal dysfunction, unresponsiveness to treatment, and extensive fibrotic changes in the glomeruli such as glomerulosclerosis.

If patients having membranoproliferative disease remain untreated, 50-60% of them will lead to ESRD in a period of 10-15 years. The situation in case of Wegener granulomatosis is different because about 20-25% are at risk of leading to ESRD [9] [10]. 

The etiological factors responsible for AGN may be classified into infectious and non-infectious causes. The commonest infections responsible for AGN are streptococcal infections, particularly strep pharyngitis.

Noninfectious causes of AGN are mostly autoimmune diseases and include systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), goodpasture's syndrome, amyloidosis, Wegener granulomatosis, and polyarteritis nodosa [3].

Prolonged and heavy use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have also been suggested as a risk factor for AGN.

AGN accounts for 10-15% cases of glomerular diseases in the United States. However, the incidence rates have been variable, partially because of the asymptomatic nature of this condition in more than 50% of patients. Generally, statistics reveal a decline in the incidence of post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis in the United States. This decline is attributable to improved healthcare delivery and socioeconomic conditions.

In the United States, AGN is responsible for 25-30% of cases of ESRD. In about 25% of cases, the disease progresses to an acute nephritic syndrome. Acute nephritic syndrome, in turn, progresses to end-stage renal failure after several weeks or months.

Worldwide, the commonest cause of AGN is Berger disease or IgA nephropathy. Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis open link is most commonly seen in Africa, the Caribbean, India, South America, Malaysia, and Pakistan.

In Nigeria's Port Harcourt city, the incidence of AGN in children between the ages of 3 to 16 years was 15.5 cases per year. Furthermore, the incidence of the disease was higher among males than females with a ratio of 1.1:1. However, currently the difference in incidence among males and females is not so significant [4].

Generally, there are more marked variations in geographic and seasonal incidence rates of post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis following pharyngeal infections than those which follow streptococcal skin infections [4] [5].

AGN presents with both morphological and functional changes in the kidneys. There is cellular proliferation in the glomerular tufts as a result of the excess proliferation of the mesangial, epithelial, and endothelial cells triggered by the immune-complex deposition [6]. The cellular proliferation may be confined to the glomerular capillary, in what's described as endocapillary proliferation. Alternatively, it may occur in the Bowman's capsule beyond the glomerular cells and it is referred to as extra capillary proliferation. Accompanying this cellular proliferation is neutrophilic and monocytic infiltration of the glomerular capillary lumen.

On light microscopy, the glomerular capillary walls appear thickened. A study using electron microscopy clearly shows the basement membrane as thickened due to the deposits of electron-dense particles on the subendothelial, mesangial, and subepithelial parts of the basement membrane. The structural changes in the kidneys may be focal, segmental, diffuse, or global. Morphologically the kidneys appear grossly enlarged as a result of swelling effect in the glomerular tufts.

The main feature of AGN is the deposition or formation of immune complexes in the glomerulus. The deposition of complement factors and immunoglobulins is demonstrable by immunofluorescence.

The triggers for the formation of immune complexes in the glomerulus are largely unclear, except in cases of post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis. In post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis, a streptococcal neuraminidase alters the host immunoglobulin G (IgG) which combines with the host antibodies forming IgG/anti-IgG complexes which subsequently deposit in the glomeruli. Furthermore, the presence of high titers of antistreptolysin O or antihyaluronidase, streptokinase, and DNAase-B strongly suggest a preceding streptococcal infection. Specific antibodies may combine with these antigens to form immune complexes.

Nephritis-associated plasmin receptor (NAPlr) has been described as a glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase which functions a plasminogen receptor. NAPlr deposition was demonstrated in the initial stages of post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis in immunofluorescence staining of renal biopsy specimens with anti-NAPlr antibodies. This finding links NAPlr with the pathogenesis of post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis [7].

A study conducted among adults revealed that the two commonest infectious triggers of AGN were streptococci and staphylococci, occurring in 27.9% and 24.4% of cases, respectively [8]. In infections of groups A, C, and G streptococcus associated with glomerulonephritis, titers of antibodies against nephritis-associated protease (NAPR) are significantly elevated. Anti-NAPR antibodies persist for several years and have been suggested to help prevent further episodes of post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis.

Prevention of AGN may include routine urinalysis done for patients with autoimmune diseases such as SLE.

Acute glomerulonephritis (AGN) is inflammation of the glomeruli which occurs as a result of autoimmune response to an infection or immune complex depositions occurring in autoimmune pathologies. AGN may also affect the various parts of glomerulus such as mesangium, the capillary endothelium and basement membrane.

Generally, the causes of AGN may be infectious or autoimmune diseases. AGN often occurs sequel to a streptococcal infection open link, usually strep throat or strep cutaneous infections [1]. This post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis is often commonly seen in children between 2 and 10 years. Noninfectious causes of AGN include autoimmune diseases such as IgA nephropathy, systemic lupus erythematosus, cryoglobulinemia, goodpasture syndrome, and Wegener granulomatosis [2]. AGN due to these autoimmune diseases is most likely associated with rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis.

The characteristic features of AGN are the formation and deposition of immune complexes in the glomerular tufts, accompanied by polymorphonuclear cellular infiltrates. Functionally, AGN results in hematuria, proteinuria, facial or pedal edema, and systemic hypertension. Nonspecific symptoms are also common in this disease.

Disease prognosis becomes poor due to severe proteinuria, hematuria, and renal damage on presentation, unresponsiveness to appropriate therapy, and the presence of extensive renal fibrosis or sclerosis on biopsy. The main complication of AGN is the end-stage renal disease (ESRD).

Renal biopsy is the main diagnostic tool of choice to confirm AGN. However, other investigations including bloodwork, urinalysis, and imaging studies provide details to corroborate the diagnosis.

Management of AGN comprises of symptomatic control and treatment of the underlying disorder. Antibiotics and corticosteroids are administered for infectious and autoimmune-associated AGN, respectively. Additionally, diuretics are necessary to relieve the edema. 

Overview

The kidney is an organ of waste excretion in the form of urine. However, the process of waste excretion is very complex involving several small structures within each kidney. The first stage of urine production is the filtration of the waste products from the blood. Some useful products are also filtered, but are later reabsorbed into the blood. The units which filter the blood are called the glomeruli (singular: glomerulus).

Acute glomerulonephritis (AGN) is an inflammation and consequent destruction of the glomeruli and adjacent tissues. This, in turn, would lead to reduced urine production as well as salt and water retention in the body.

Etiology

AGN may be caused by infections or certain noninfectious diseases called autoimmune diseases in which the body's antibodies attack certain normal tissues in the body confusing them for foreign harmful substances. The commonest infectious causes of AGN are infections caused by the bacterium streptococcus, which are mostly are responsible for sore throat and skin infections. The common autoimmune diseases which cause AGN includes systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Wegener granulomatosis, and Berger disease.

Pathophysiology

AGN develops when antibodies formed in the body against certain components of the bacterium or infectious agents bind with these agents and deposit in the glomeruli causing destruction of the glomeruli and surrounding tissues.

Presentation

More than half of the patients with this disease may not show any symptoms. However, those who come down with symptoms may present with swelling of the face and legs, reduced urine volume, passage of coke-colored or dark urine, urine frothiness and a high blood pressure.

The facial and leg swelling results from the kidneys' inability to dilute the urine with water from the blood and so there is an accumulation of excess salt and water in the certain regions of the body such as the feet and face. This is also responsible for the elevated blood pressure in these patients. The dark color of the urine is due to the presence of the blood in it, and the frothiness of the urine is as a result of leakage of small proteins through the damaged glomerular filter into the urine. 

There are other non-specific symptoms of this disease which include fever, weakness, dizziness, and abdominal aches.

Diagnosis

A diagnosis of AGN is made by way of investigations which include blood tests and urinalysis: which involves examining a sample of the patient's urine and analyzing it's contents. Results of urinalysis in AGN usually show presence of white and red blood cells which indicate infective damage or inflammation of the kidney tubules and damage to the glomeruli, respectively.

The main diagnostic tool for confirming the diagnosis of AGN is kidney biopsy. This procedure involves using a big needle to take a sample of the kidney through the patient's trunk, then analyzing the sample under a microscope.

Treatment

Prompt diagnosis and treatment of AGN is necessary to avoid the major complication which is called end-stage renal disease which indicates that the kidney is too damaged to function at all.

Treatment of AGN involves treating the predisposing condition and correcting the symptoms. A class of drugs called diuretics are prescribed to remove excess fluids from the sites where they accumulate. Drugs which lower blood pressure are also necessary. If an infection is determined as the trigger of AGN, antibiotics are administered and for autoimmune-related cases, drugs called corticosteroids such as prednisolone are administered.

In cases of end-stage renal disease, kidney transplant is considered.

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