Acute myocarditis (AM) is defined as an inflammatory disease involving the myocardium and its exact pathogenesis model remains to be completely elucidated [1] [2] [3] [4]. AM can arise on the grounds of various infections and autoimmune disorders [1] [2] [3] [4]. By far, viruses are responsible for the majority of cases, primarily enteroviruses (coxsackie A or B and echoviruses), but also Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and increasingly important human herpesvirus 6 (HHV6) and parvovirus B19, which were recently identified as the main causes of myocarditis in Germany [1] [5] [6]. In addition, bacteria (Brucella spp., Clostridium spp., Francisella spp., Legionella, etc.), fungal microorganisms (Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptococcus, Histoplasma), and a number of parasites have been reported as a cause of myocarditis as well [1] [4]. On the other hand, sarcoidosis, Wegener's granulomatosis, celiac disease, connective tissue disorders, rheumatic fever, but also various drugs (antimicrobials, diuretics, antipsychotics, etc.) are notable non-infectious etiologies of myocarditis [1] [4]. The clinical presentation starts with a flu-like symptomatology (fatigue, malaise, and constitutional symptoms), followed by dyspnea, palpitations, arrhythmias, and chest pain with discomfort as the main symptoms [1] [7]. However, patients may be completely asymptomatic or develop severe cardiac insufficiency that results in heart failure and sudden death, and up to 9% of all sudden cardiac deaths have been attributed to myocarditis in certain reports [4] [7] [8]. Tachycardia, cardiogenic shock, and a syndrome mimicking myocardial infarction (MI) or coronary heart disease (CAD) can be seen in severe cases [1] [2]. Although the short-term prognosis of acute myocarditis is generally good [7], long-term sequelae in the form of cardiomyopathy and progressive decline in cardiac functions are observed [3] [4], thus illustrating the importance of an early diagnosis and proper treatment.

• Fever

  Japanese spotted fever (JSF) is caused by Rickettsia japonica. Although it induces a variety of complications, acute myocarditis has never been reported as a complication of JSF. We treated a JSF patient who developed acute myocarditis. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  On the other hand, sarcoidosis, Wegener's granulomatosis, celiac disease, connective tissue disorders, rheumatic fever, but also various drugs (antimicrobials, diuretics, antipsychotics, etc.) are notable non-infectious etiologies of myocarditis. [symptoma.com]

• Congestive Heart Failure

  We reported the case of a 12-year-old girl with congestive heart failure, acute myocarditis and pericardial effusion as a primary manifestation of SLE. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Antiarrhythmic drugs may be required, as well as therapy to combat congestive heart failure. If the heart involvement becomes chronic, treatment then must be aimed at management of the chronic heart failure. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  congestive heart failure at presentation. [heart.bmj.com]

  Fulminant myocarditis is a distinct entity characterized by sudden onset of severe congestive heart failure or cardiogenic shock, usually following a flu-like illness. [journals.lww.com]

• Fatigue

  […] comprised cine sequences, T2-weighted edema imaging and late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) imaging on a 1.5-T MR scanner. 89 patients (28 ± 7 years, 89 % male) were included to this study presenting with symptoms of chest pain (85 %), dyspnea (26 %), fatigue [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  The main symptoms are headache, jaw claudication, polymyalgia rheumatica, visual loss, fatigue, and fever. Pericarditis and myocardial infarction due to coronary arteritis have been rarely reported 1, 2, 3. [jrheum.org]

  The clinical presentation starts with a flu-like symptomatology (fatigue, malaise, and constitutional symptoms), followed by dyspnea, palpitations, arrhythmias, and chest pain with discomfort as the main symptoms. [symptoma.com]

  Signs and symptoms include chest pain, fatigue, shortness of breath, and arrhythmias. Severe myocarditis weakens your heart so that the rest of your body doesn't get enough blood. Clots can form in your heart, leading to a stroke or heart attack. [mayoclinic.org]

  Symptoms of myocarditis may start as fatigue, shortness of breath, fever and aching of the joints, all characteristic of a flu-like illness. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

• Malaise

  A 43-year-old previously healthy Taiwanese male came to our emergency department due to high fever, chills, general malaise and myalgia for about 4 days. An influenza rapid test from a throat swab was negative. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  The clinical presentation starts with a flu-like symptomatology (fatigue, malaise, and constitutional symptoms), followed by dyspnea, palpitations, arrhythmias, and chest pain with discomfort as the main symptoms. [symptoma.com]

  They may complain of a flu-like illness with of fatigue, malaise and fever. They may not be able to tolerate exercise or may complain of chest pain or palpitations (skipped or extra heartbeats). They may develop a cough. [cincinnatichildrens.org]

  METHODS Our patient, was a male, 38 years old, Caucasian, coming from another hospital, reporting a picture 6 weeks before of mononucleosis like syndrome with enlargement of neck lynphonodes, malaise, and fever, that lasted for few days and improved with [scielo.br]

• Dyspnea

  The clinical presentation was an influenzae-like syndrome, classical for a CMV infection, without any chest pain or dyspnea, but a systematic exploration showed multiple inflammation-compatible myopericardial images on MNR-scan. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Chest pain, dyspnea, and syncope are principal symptoms. The clinical course, however, varies from asymptomatic to sudden cardiac death. [symptoma.com]

• Rales

  The arterial pressure was 89x56 and MAP of 67 mmHg, there was a gallop rhythm with rales in both lung fields. There was intense vasoconstriction with absence of pulses down to the popliteal arteries. [scielo.br]

  Physical exam will look like congestive heart failure, with jugular venous distention, pulmonary rales, peripheral edema, pulsatile liver, and perhaps a laterally displaced point of maximal impulse (PMI). E. [clinicaladvisor.com]

• Orthopnea

  Case 1: A 48-years-old, previously healthy male patient admitted to our clinic with complaints of acute onset of rest dyspnea and orthopnea, started the day before. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] symptoms Physical signs Features of viral illness Myalgia, sore throat, diarrhoea, vomiting Fever, tachycardia Myopericarditis Chest pain, breathlessness Pericardial rub, signs of tamponade Myocardial dysfunction Chest pain, breathlessness, collapse, orthopnea [rcemlearning.co.uk]

• Chest Pain

  KEYWORDS: Acute myocarditis; Cardiovascular magnetic resonance; Chest pain; Pediatrics [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Tachycardia

  Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are uncommonly used due to their high frequency of adverse effects, including tachycardia and hypertension. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Heart Disease

  Tachycardia, cardiogenic shock, and a syndrome mimicking myocardial infarction (MI) or coronary heart disease (CAD) can be seen in severe cases. [symptoma.com]

  Acute viral myocarditis (AVM) is an inflammatory heart disease that may lead to acute heart failure caused by cardiomyocyte loss. AVM may result in fatal outcome due to hemodynamic compromise. There is no specific treatment for AVM. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Cooper, Jr., MD, and a panel of leading clinical and scientific experts comprehensively review both advances in basic scientific understanding and current clinical knowledge of inflammatory heart disease. [books.google.com]

  ICD-10-CM Codes › I00-I99 Diseases of the circulatory system › I30-I52 Other forms of heart disease › Type 1 Excludes Type 1 Excludes Help A type 1 excludes note is a pure excludes. It means "not coded here". [icd10data.com]

• Gallop Rhythm

  A gallop rhythm, produced by the third or fourth heart sound is best heard at the apex. [jpma.org.pk]

  rhythm, raised JVP, pulmonary oedema, low blood pressure and cardiogenic shock Arrhythmias Palpitations, breathlessness, syncope Abnormal pulse rate, rhythm, signs of cardiac failure Jump to: Top | Introduction | Clinical assessment | Differential Diagnosis [rcemlearning.co.uk]

  The arterial pressure was 89x56 and MAP of 67 mmHg, there was a gallop rhythm with rales in both lung fields. There was intense vasoconstriction with absence of pulses down to the popliteal arteries. [scielo.br]

• Cardiomegaly

  […] supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias can occur in patients with myocarditis The presence of Q waves or a new left bundle branch block (LBBB) are associated with higher rates of cardiac death or heart transplantation Radiology description Chest Xray: cardiomegaly [pathologyoutlines.com]

  Possible abnormalities on CXR (see Image): Normal Pulmonary oedema Cardiomegaly Pleural or pericardial effusions CXR showing acute pulmonary oedema (iii) Echocardiography Transthoracic echocardiography is currently recommended in the initial evaluation [rcemlearning.co.uk]

  Diagnostic Modalities The chest x-ray typically demonstrates cardiomegaly and increased pulmonary vascular markings, indicating pulmonary oedema. [jpma.org.pk]

The life-threatening nature of AM necessitates a thorough diagnostic workup, starting with a detailed patient history that will identify the course and progression of symptoms, recent travel (to exclude certain viral, fungal or parasitic infections), and the presence of comorbidities that may contribute to clinical deterioration. The physical examination is perhaps even more important, which can reveal tachycardia, cardiac murmurs (soft S1 sound, S3 or S4 gallop, as well as sounds pointing toward insufficiency of the mitral or tricuspid valve), a pericardial friction rub, and a displaced punctum maximum [1] [4]. A full body inspection must not be overlooked, as it may lead to findings such as lymphadenopathy, subcutaneous nodules, joint sensitivity (typical for sarcoidosis and rheumatic fever, respectively) or other signs of that might point to the underlying cause [4]. As soon as the heart is identified as the source of symptoms, cardiac enzymes: troponin I, troponin T, and creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB) must be evaluated to exclude myocardial infarction, after which electrocardiography (EKG) and imaging studies, primarily cardiac ultrasonography, should be employed [1]. Although clear diagnostic criteria do not exist for acute myocarditis, an overall reduced activity of the myocardium (hypokinesia) is the main finding, but more importantly, other etiologies (valvular or congenital heart disease, as well as myocardial infarction) can be ruled out [1] [4]. Extensive microbiological testing is available, mainly through serology and blood cultures, but the introduction of molecular testing (eg. polymerase chain reaction, or PCR) has markedly improved the overall success of identifying microorganisms in patient samples [1]. Endomyocardial biopsy is a definite method for confirmation of AM, but it is indicated only if the procedure is assumed to have a vitally important effect on the therapeutic course [1] [4] [9] [10].

• Right Bundle Branch Block

  It has also been described in a work the report of sequences of alternatively normal and Wenckebach beats with alternate and progressive right bundle branch block interpreted as functional longitudinal dissociation in atrioventricular conduction axis [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• T Wave Inversion

  T-wave inversions (negative T-waves) ST elevations are normalized slowly in pericarditis. It may take weeks for the ST elevations to resolve. Thereafter, T-wave inversion typically ensues. [ecgwaves.com]

  KEYWORDS: Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; Myocardial edema; Myocarditis; Negative T-waves [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Markers of myocardial damage ( troponin or creatine kinase cardiac isoenzymes) are elevated. [10] The ECG findings most commonly seen in myocarditis are diffuse T wave inversions; saddle-shaped ST-segment elevations may be present (these are also seen [en.wikipedia.org]

  ST-abnormalities were defined as significant ST-segment elevation and/or significant ST-segment depression and/or T-wave inversion [ 7 ]. [kjim.org]

• Myocardial Fibrosis

  Abstract Current cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) quantitative signs for the diagnosis of myocarditis include myocardial edema, fibrosis and myocardial hyperemia (Hyp). Methods for the assessment of Hyp are actually complex and time-consuming. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  This third phase of the disease, the chronic phase, is characterised by myocardial fibrosis and development of DCM. 1 This involves chamber dilation and ventricular wall thinning with impairment of the contractile function of the heart, leading to permanent [jpma.org.pk]

There is no specific treatment for AVM. Treatment is generally same as the treatment of conventional heart failure. Levosimendan is a new molecule with inotropic and vasodilator effect and is widely used for acute decompensated heart failure. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

If a positive viral PCR result was obtained in the myocardium, treatment was begun with subcutaneous IFN-1β for 6 months (Betaferon at a dosage of 4 million units 3 days a week 5, 6 ) and specific antiviral treatment if available. [revespcardiol.org]

OBJECTIVES: This study sought to evaluate the role of CMR and LGE in the prognosis of AM with preserved LVEF. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

Objectives This study sought to evaluate the role of CMR and LGE in the prognosis of AM with preserved LVEF. [onlinejacc.org]

The AS group had worse prognosis than other groups. [thecardiologyadvisor.com]

[…] myocarditis is a potentially life-threatening inflammatory disorder of the myocardium, most commonly caused by viral pathogens such as coxsackie A and B, as well as influenza viruses and other enteroviruses, but an array of infections and autoimmune etiologies [symptoma.com]

A lobar pneumonia caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae, was radiographically and serologically diagnosed in the first patient (a 15-year-old boy) and a febrile diarrhea of unidentified etiology, despite repetitive stool cultures and serological assessments [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

[…] was first introduced by Corvisart It is defined by WHO / International Society and Federation of Cardiology (ISFC) as an inflammatory disease of the heart muscle, diagnosed by established histological, immunological and immunohistochemical criteria Epidemiology [pathologyoutlines.com]

View Article PubMed Google Scholar Maisch B, Hufnagel G, Schonian U, Hengstenberg C: The European Study of Epidemiology and Treatment of Cardiac Inflammatory Diseases (ESETCID). Eur Heart J. 1995, 16 (Suppl 0): 173-5. [bmccardiovascdisord.biomedcentral.com]

CrossRef Google Scholar × Volume 14, Issue 5 October 2004, pp. 488-493 (a1) Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida, Jacksonville, USA (a2) Department of Family Medicine and Clinical Epidemiology, University of [cambridge.org]

Giant cell myocarditis, sarcoidosis, Kawasaki disease, Crohn disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, ulcerative colitis, Wegener granulomatosis, thyrotoxicosis, scleroderma, rheumatoid arthritis Peripartum cardiomyopathy Posttransplant cellular rejection Epidemiology [emedicine.medscape.com]

[22] Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation may be used in those who are about to go into cardiac arrest. [24] Alternative medicine [ edit ] Studies have shown no benefit for the use of herbal medicine on all cause mortality in viral myocarditis. [25] Epidemiology [en.wikipedia.org]

The objectives of this review are: (1) to detail the current state of knowledge of the pathophysiological mechanisms of acute myocarditis; (2) to provide an update on diagnostic tools such as magnetic resonance imaging and endomyocardial biopsy; and [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

Differences in viral pathophysiology may contribute to differences in outcome. Alternatively, arrhythmia risk may differ by location. [acc.org]

[…] criteria Epidemiology Postmortem data identify myocarditis in 8.6% to 12% of cases of sudden death in young adults The Myocarditis Treatment Trial reported the incidence of biopsy proven myocarditis in patients with unexplained heart failure to be 9.6% Pathophysiology [pathologyoutlines.com]

The pathophysiology of GCA myocarditis is unknown; diffuse vasculitis of small myocardial vessels has been suspected 4. [jrheum.org]

Cardiac 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose/positron emission tomography was used to confirm the resolution of her acute myocarditis and was critical to the decision-making process that prevented unnecessary pacemaker insertion. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

Prevention Although myocarditis is an unpredictable disease, the following measures may help prevent its onset. Individuals should: Take extra measures to avoid infections, and obtain appropriate treatment for infections. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

Prevention There's no specific prevention for myocarditis. However, taking these steps to prevent infections might help: Avoid people who have a viral or flu-like illness until they've recovered. [mayoclinic.org]

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8. Fabre A, Sheppard MN. Sudden adult death syndrome and other non‐ischaemic causes of sudden cardiac death. Heart. 2006;92(3):316-320.
9. Hunt SA, Baker DW, Chin MH, et al. Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult: Executive Summary. A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee to Revise the 1995 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure): Developed in Collaboration With the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation; Endorsed by the Heart Failure Society of America. Circulation. 2001;104:2996–3007
10. Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, et al. The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology Endorsed by the Heart Failure Society of America and the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2007;28:3076–3093.