The most common feature of catatonic schizophrenia is a disturbance in the individual’s movement. The majority of individuals will have an obvious decrease in voluntary movements and become catatonic. In between the inactivity there may be periods of excess motion which is known as catatonic excitement.

Other features of the disorder include the following:

• Purposeless motions
• Repetitive movements (stereotypical behaviour) of the body, esp. of the extremities or digits
• Resistance to change in appearance or body posture even though they appear uncomfortable
• Maintain same position for hours
• Abnormal facial contortions which may be mistaken for tardive dyskinesia
• Echolalia (repeating what a person says(
• Echopraxia (mimicking movements of another person)
• Command automatism meaning the individual will obey all instructions without any hesitation or questioning why

• Disability

  A patient with comorbid intellectual disability, catatonic schizophrenia, and recurrent oneiroid state of consciousness improved on long-acting risperidone and remains well at the three-year follow-up. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Please enable JS and disable any ad blocker [psychiatrictimes.com]

  It is considered to be chronic, severe, and extremely disabling in many cases. 2. Schizophrenia has a number of causes. [healthresearchfunding.org]

• Fatigue

  Feeling of intense pent up energy ready to explode or feeling of extreme fatigue and lack of interest towards life. Belief that thoughts are being inserted or withdrawn from one’s consciousness or are being broadcasted to others. [trialx.com]

  […] which can occur nearly every day a loss of interest in most activities sudden weight gain or loss a change in appetite trouble falling asleep trouble getting out of bed feelings of restlessness irritability feelings of worthlessness feelings of guilt fatigue [healthline.com]

  Omega-3 fatty acids from fatty fish, fish oil, walnuts, and flaxseeds can help improve focus, banish fatigue, and balance your moods. [helpguide.org]

• Weight Gain

  gain or loss a change in appetite trouble falling asleep trouble getting out of bed feelings of restlessness irritability feelings of worthlessness feelings of guilt fatigue difficulty concentrating difficulty thinking difficulty making decisions thoughts [healthline.com]

• High Fever

  fever Neglect of personal hygiene To address these issues, people with disorganized schizophrenia may need frequent medical assessments, long term care in a supervised setting or hospitalization. [knowyourdisease.com]

• Cough

  Multiple risk factors include malnutrition, weak cough, poor respiratory effort, atelectasis, and crowded institutional settings which also makes infection more likely with an antibiotic-resistant organism. [primarypsychiatry.com]

• Constipation

  Reduced oral intake leads to dehydration and malnutrition, which, in turn, promote other complications, especially infection and skin breakdown. 41 Dehydration also leads to constipation or ileus, which can be profound in catatonia. 42 For all of these [primarypsychiatry.com]

• Tachycardia

  These patients may be at an increased risk for developing tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, and hypertension following ECT. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Fever, tachycardia, and hypertension developed concurrently with the administration of thiothixene during an acute episode of agitation in a case of catatonic schizophrenia. [jamanetwork.com]

  The first occurred in 1980 with descriptions of a toxic response to neuroleptic agents and the identification of the NMS. 59 The patients were mute, rigid, posturing, and in stupor, accompanied by fever, tachycardia, hypertension, and tachypnea. [doi.org]

• Orthostatic Hypotension

  Decreased Cardiac Output related to orthostatic hypotensive drug effects. Risk for Suicide related to impulsiveness and marked changes in behavior. Risk for Injury related to hallucinations and delusions. [nurseslabs.com]

• Delusion

  […] paraphrenic schizophrenia a form of schizophrenia characterized by delusions paranoic type schizophrenia a form of schizophrenia characterized by delusions reactive schizophrenia schizophrenia of abrupt onset and relatively short duration hebephrenic [vocabulary.com]

  Paranoid schizophrenia is characterized by persecutory or grandiose delusions, delusional jealousy, or hallucinations with persecutory or grandiose content. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  Paranoid schizophrenia : As the name suggests, the person is over obsessed with elaborate delusions of persecution, mortal harm, conspiracy, sabotage, or personal grandeur. [trialx.com]

  Its typical symptoms are certainly distinctive: a motionless stupor, bizarre posturing, waxen flexibility, religious delusions, stereotyped movements, negativism, loss of will, confusion, and recurrent frenzy (Kahlbaum 1874). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Negativism

  During the withdrawal stage, stupor, waxy flexibility, muscular rigidity, mutism, blocking, negativism, and catalepsy (cerea flexibilitas) may be seen. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  Onset of illness appears to be among young adults and mutism, stupor, mannerisms, stereotypes and negativism were the common catatonic symptoms observed. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Stereotyped Behavior

  Associated features include stereotypic behavior, mannerisms, and waxy flexibility; mutism is particularly common. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  Some are stereotypic behaviors that present as disturbances of movement and repeated, purposeless actions. [study.com]

  Actions that appear relatively purposeless but are repetitively performed, also known as stereotypic behavior, may occur, often to the exclusion of involvement in any productive activity. [psychcentral.com]

• Anger

  These may include hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, fits of anger, social withdrawal, absence of emotional expression or response, awkward or uncoordinated movement, poor personal hygiene, inappropriate emotions, difficulties performing [schizophrenic.com]

  Of course, people with this disorder may also displays signs of schizophrenia, including: Hallucinations Delusions Cognitive problems Social withdrawal Bursts of anger Poor personal hygiene Social issues An inability to express emotions Getting a Diagnosis [psychology.about.com]

  Symptoms common to other subtypes, like disorganized speech and flattened affect, are not usually prominent in episodes of paranoia, but anger, irritability, and extreme anxiety are. [healthcommunities.com]

  I did not get those symptoms to the same degree, but instead saw lots of anger. [amandagreenauthor.co.uk]

  […] effects, going from mild sedation to complete anesthesia Not the routine choice for catatonic schizophrenia (can cause addiction as well) Antidepressants These are also known as mood stabilizers May help with additional problems, such as depression or anger [mddk.com]

• Social Isolation

  Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder characterized by many of the following features: emotional blunting, intellectual deterioration, social isolation, disorganized speech and behavior, delusions, and hallucinations. [study.com]

  In addition to characteristic catatonic schizophrenia symptoms, people who have catatonic schizophrenia may exhibit common schizophrenia symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, social isolation and inappropriate or deadened emotions. [psychiatric-disorders.com]

  isolation- few close friends if any. [bluelight.org]

• Catatonia

  The results of the study led to the following hypotheses: Periodic and systematic catatonia are valid subgroups of DSM-III-R schizophrenia. In systematic catatonia heritability is very low. Periodic catatonia is a familial disorder. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  The medical treatment of catatonia involves the following: Use of benzodiazepines is recommended as they tend to work rapidly. These agents do not cure the catatonia but relieve the symptoms. [symptoma.com]

• Stupor

  Despite therapists' attention to nonverbal behavior, mutism and stupor are particularly effective hindrances to communication in psychotherapy. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Code F44.2 Dissociative stupor 2016 2017 2018 2019 Billable/Specific Code Type 1 Excludes catatonic stupor ( R40.1 ) stupor NOS ( R40.1 ) Type 2 Excludes catatonic disorder due to known physiological condition ( F06.1 ) depressive stupor ( F32, F33 ) [icd10data.com]

  So without the effects of ECT, it would be uncertain whether aripiprazole alone could have resolved her long-term stupor state. [annals-general-psychiatry.biomedcentral.com]

• Excitement

  […] is rapid alteration between the extremes of excitement and stupor. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  There are two type of behavioral classes that the catatonic schizophrenic will engage in; catatonic excitement and catatonic stupor. [alleydog.com]

  Applies To Catatonic (schizophrenia): agitation excitation excited type stupor withdrawn type Schizophrenic: catalepsy catatonia flexibilitas cerea ICD-9-CM Volume 2 Index entries containing back-references to 295.2 : ICD-9-CM codes are used in medical [icd9data.com]

  […] catatonic schizophrenia a form of schizophrenia characterized by a tendency to remain in a fixed stuporous state for long periods; the catatonia may give way to short periods of extreme excitement catatonic type schizophrenia a form of schizophrenia characterized [vocabulary.com]

  In other case, they may get over excited or get hyperactive. At times they might make mimicking sounds and sometimes movements around them which is referred as catatonic excitement. [healthkartrx.com]

• Seizure

  Cerebral folate deficiency presents during infancy with irritability, deceleration of head growth, seizures, and progressive cognitive and motor impairment. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Other conditions, like mania, seizure disorder, substance abuse, and severe depression share symptoms with catatonic schizophrenia and must be ruled out first. [medicalnewstoday.com]

  The shocks induce seizures, causing the release of neurotransmitters in the brain. This form of treatment is rarely used today in the treatment of schizophrenia. [streetdirectory.com]

• Confusion

  Its typical symptoms are certainly distinctive: a motionless stupor, bizarre posturing, waxen flexibility, religious delusions, stereotyped movements, negativism, loss of will, confusion, and recurrent frenzy (Kahlbaum 1874). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Schizophrenia - Delusions (beliefs that conflict with reality), hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that aren't really there), and catatonic behavior (confused thinking, bizarre behavior or movements) are just three symptoms that characterize this [glosbe.com]

  This set of symptoms sometimes is confused with another disorder called tardive dyskinesia, which mimics some of these same, odd behaviors. [psychcentral.com]

  Of course there are obvious characteristics of mental illness that cannot be confused with giftedness, in my opinion as a Mental Health Peer Advocate, that encompass apathy, changes in movement, visual and auditory hallucinations, major delusions, catatonic [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

Before making a diagnosis of catatonia, the primary diagnosis of schizophrenia must be made. To diagnose of catatonic schizophrenia, the abnormal movement behaviour must be predominant. The abnormal movements and symptoms may include stupor, excitement, posturing, and negativism, rigidity, waxy flexibility, automatic compliance and echolalia.

A complete medical and mental health history of the family and details about pregnancy must be obtained. Use of medications and other illicit agents must be sought. Even though schizophrenia is not associated with any abnormal laboratory work, these studies must be performed to rule out other organic causes of schizophrenia and/or catatonia. Besides a complete blood count, liver, thyroid and renal function tests are required. Electrolyte levels, urine testing for illicit drugs and brain imaging are also needed. Other tests depend on the symptoms. If there is suspicion of Wilson disease, urinary and serum copper, and ceruloplasmin levels are needed.

Other tests include ruling out syphilis, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, Lyme disease, systemic lupus erythematosus and Cushing syndrome. Some experts even recommend a lumbar puncture to examine the CSF fluid for infection.

A thorough neuropsychiatric exam is needed to obtain baseline levels of cognition, memory, concentration and ability to perform executive function. There are some individuals who will not communicate and appear to have catatonic schizophrenia. In such cases, a preliminary diagnosis of schizophrenia is made and the patient is closely followed until there is more evidence of other symptoms to confirm the diagnosis. It is important to note that presence of catatonia does not mean an individual has schizophrenia because there are many other causes of the disorder (eg. medications, organic brain disease, use of alcohol, metabolic disturbances).

The treatment of catatonic schizophrenia is more difficult compared to the usual schizophrenic patient. In general, use of antipsychotic drugs can make the catatonia worse, because of their antidopaminergic effects. Use of antipsychotics drugs in the presence of catatonia also increases the risk of developing neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS), which is fatal if not recognized and treated promptly. If neuroleptic malignant syndrome is suspected, the antipsychotic drug must be discontinued immediately and the patient admitted for observation in the ICU. The risk of NMS is less with the second generation antipsychotics but not completely zero. The second generation antipsychotics are used to treat catatonic schizophrenics but under close observation.

If the patient is refusing to eat, parenteral nutrition may be required. If the patient poses a risk to him/herself or others, a 1:1 psychiatric attendant must be present at all times.

The medical treatment of catatonia involves the following:

• Use of benzodiazepines is recommended as they tend to work rapidly. These agents do not cure the catatonia but relieve the symptoms. Valium is often the drug of choice and results in marked improvement of the catatonic features. Other benzodiazepines like lozazepam can also be used. For emergency cases, midazolam maybe used intravenously and the patient’s respiratory and hemodynamic status must be monitored.
• In the majority of patients with catatonic schizophrenia, the second line treatment is electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). The treatment is effective but often several sessions are required [5] [6] [7].
• If benzodiazepines and ECT fail to work or their benefits are mild, then use of NMDA antagonists is recommended. Drugs like memantine and amantadine used to treat neurodegenerative disorders (eg. Alzheimer disease and Parkinson disease) may help. Unfortunately patients often develop tolerance and the drugs also have potent adverse effects. The newer anticonvulsant, topiramate has also been used to treat catatonia and does work in some people. It acts by modulating the effects of glutamate.
• Other drugs used to treat catatonia include tricyclic antidepressants, muscle relaxants, lithium, bromocriptine, thyroid hormone, reserpine and barbital derivatives [8] [9].
• Once the patient has recovered from catatonia, the drugs must be gradually withdrawn. However, in individuals with recurrent catatonia, a low maintenance dose of the drug is required.

The prognosis of schizophrenia overall is poor. Full recovery or cure is very unusual. Most individuals have progression of the disease and do not become fully functional citizens. The nature of symptoms is unpredictable with many periods of waxing and waning. While positive symptoms of schizophrenia do respond well to treatment, the negative symptoms are persistent. Many individuals with schizophrenia are neglected, have a poor diet and lead a life of poverty. Homelessness, incarceration and other medical illnesses are common. Many schizophrenics’ have a poor and unhealthy lifestyle that include smoking, poor nutrition, lack of exercise and poor medical care. Most remain non-complaint with medications.

Presence of catatonia significantly worsens the prognosis as the disorder is difficult to treat. These individual are vulnerable and often suffer from violence. Even in hospital they remain isolated and are sedated for prolonged times. The drugs have many adverse effects and often impair the patient’s life. Overall, schizophrenics have a 5% lifetime risk of suicide.

The cause of schizophrenia is not known but has been linked to genes and the environment. Catatonia is thought to be caused by abnormal function of the GABA and glutamate neurotransmitter systems in the brain. It is believed that there is most likely an abnormal breakdown of the neurotransmitters in the prefrontal lobe and thalamus. In addition, blockade of dopamine receptor leads to catatonic symptoms. Deficiency of GABA which is an inhibitory neurotransmitter or an increase in glutamine, which is an excitatory neurotransmitter, may lead to uncontrolled motor behaviour. Others believe that the etiology may be related to an inherent response to fear, which when activated, leads to a completely immobile state.

There is some research indicating that the immune system may be defective in schizophrenia. Overactivity of the immune system may result in overexpression of certain cytokines in the brain, and lead to dysfunction of neurotransmitters. Elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines have been found in some patients with schizophrenia [4].

It is believed that the disorder may have genetic and perinatal risk factors. Besides genetic factors, advanced paternal age is also a risk factor for catatonic schizophrenia. The risk of schizophrenia in biological relatives of individuals with schizophrenia is about 10% and if both parents have schizophrenia, the risk of the child having the disorder can be as high as 40%. Perinatal factors linked to schizophrenia include a viral infection during pregnancy and malnourishment. Infants born during the winter months seem to be at a higher risk of developing schizophrenia. A relatively new study suggest that heavy use of marijuana among teenagers may speed up the onset of psychosis in those already at risk for developing psychotic illness [3].

The lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia in the general population is about 1%. Other studies show that the risk of schizophrenia is much higher in developed countries compared to those which are underdeveloped. Further, immigrants who come to developed countries tend to show increased rates of schizophrenia, and this risk also extends to the second generation. Schizophrenia most commonly presents in the 2nd to 3rd decade of life. The initial first few years prior to diagnosis are the most turbulent because the diagnosis is not made or there is denial by the patient and family. Both genders have an equal presupposition to schizophrenia but the onset of the disorder is a few years later in females. There is no race or culture which is immune from schizophrenia [1].

The pathophysiology of schizophrenia is related to an excess of dopamine in the brain [2]. Over the past few decades, research points to abnormalities in the function of certain neurotransmitters like dopamine in the limbic system and prefrontal cortex. Newer brain imaging techniques have shown that the potential pathology resides in the limbic system in most schizophrenic patients.

There are no specific preventive measures to prevent catatonic schizophrenia. Because the cause of catatonic schizophrenia is not known, prevention is difficult. However, patients and families need to be educated about the symptoms and signs as early treatment appears to have better outcomes. Patients should try and avoid certain infections by getting vaccinated. Catatonic symptoms due to certain medications or illicit drugs can be reversed by discontinuing the offending agent.

Catatonic schizophrenia is one of the five subtypes of schizophrenia that is characterized by extremes in behaviour. At one end of the spectrum, the individual may not be able to speak or move and be stuck in a catatonic stupor and at the other end of the spectrum may be hyperactive, use repetition in speech and engage in bizarre body movements. At both extremes the behaviour of the individual is not logical or normal [1].

Before one makes a diagnosis of catatonic schizophrenia, a general diagnosis of schizophrenia must be made. The catatonic symptoms can present with any subtype of schizophrenia. To make the diagnosis of catatonic schizophrenia, the catatonic symptoms must be dominant [2] [3].

Catatonic schizophrenia is a rare subtype of schizophrenia characterized by severe disturbances in motor behavior. Once catatonic schizophrenia is diagnosed, the family and patient need to be educated about the signs and symptoms of the disorder. Moreover the family needs to know the adverse effects of the drugs used to treat the disorder. The family should be encouraged to administer the medications and ensure compliance; otherwise relapse of schizophrenia can occur. All families should be taught about neuroleptic malignant syndrome. The moment the patient develops fever, a visit to the emergency room is highly recommended. Attempts to treat catatonia with alternative medicine is not recommended as there is little evidence that it works.

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2. Ungvari GS. Catatonia in DSM 5: controversies regarding its psychopathology, clinical presentation and treatment response. Neuropsychopharmacol Hung. 2014 Dec;16(4):189-94.
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7. Philbin D, Mulryan D, O'Grady M. Catatonic schizophrenia: therapeutic challenges and potentially a new role for electroconvulsive therapy? BMJ Case Rep. 2013 Jul 29;
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9. Sasaki T, Hashimoto T, Niitsu T, Kanahara N, Iyo M Treatment of refractory catatonic schizophrenia with low dose aripiprazole. Ann Gen Psychiatry. 2012 May 3;11(1):12.