Chlamydia infection may comprise distinct organ systems, and clinical symptoms largely depend on the causative agent.

C. trachomatis serovars D-K account for a major disease burden and most commonly affect the urogenital tract [1] [2]. Patients may develop symptoms several weeks after contracting the respective sexually transmitted infection: Dysuria due to chlamydial urethritis may be described and may be accompanied by mucopurulent or purulent vaginal/penile discharge. Bleeding after sexual intercourse has also been reported. Upon anal exposure, patients may develop rectal inflammation manifesting in pain, tenesmus, discharge, and hemorrhages. Oral sex may predispose to pharyngeal infections [3].

Another very common pathogen is Cp. pneumoniae, biovar TWAR. It is spread through aerosolized respiratory secretions and induces acute respiratory infections manifesting in sinusitis, laryngitis, pharyngitis, bronchitis, and atypical pneumonia. Patients with preexisting respiratory disorders may experience an exacerbation of symptoms. In sum, the severity of symptoms developed after an incubation time of about three weeks varies largely and ranges from asymptomatic or mild disease to severe community-acquired pneumonia. Most infections follow a mild course. Symptoms like fever, chills, myalgia, hoarseness, and cough are non-specific and don't allow for the clinical confirmation of Cp. pneumoniae infection [4]. Other triggers of respiratory infections have to be considered during the workup, including Cp. psittaci [5].

Both C. trachomatis and Cp. pneumoniae have been related to reactive arthritis, as have other intracellular pathogens and Gram-negative bacteria. Affected individuals usually have a history of genital or respiratory Chlamydia infections, and they may present with arthralgia, joint swelling, joint effusion, stiffness, and reduced motion range. Contrary to what had initially been assumed, Chlamydia-induced reactive arthritis is associated with persistent, intraarticular infections, and Chlamydia may be detected in synovial fluid samples [6] [7]. Furthermore, Cp. pneumoniae has been related to atherosclerosis, but its role in the pathogenesis of this cardiovascular disease remains poorly defined [8].

Other Chlamydiaceae may provoke conjunctivitis (C. trachomatis serovars A-C and Cp. felis), inguinal lymphadenitis, proctitis, and proctocolitis (C. trachomatis serovars L1, L2, and L3), and abortion (Cp. abortus).

• Inguinal Lymphadenopathy

  lymphadenopathy (or bubo), but it may also present with proctitis, extragenital lymphadenopathy, and systemic symptoms, including fever. 1 Response to treatment of early infection is usually excellent. [bmj.com]

  Other subtypes of the same species induce lymphogranuloma venereum, which is characterized by inguinal lymphadenopathy as well as hemorrhagic inflammation of the rectum and/or colon. [symptoma.com]

• Fever

  Though it’s possible to contract it without knowing it, symptoms of a chlamydia infection in your throat include cough, fever, and sore throat. [healthline.com]

  In men: Epididymitis - infection of the tubes that carry sperm to the testicles, which can result in fever, scrotal pain and swelling. [avert.org]

  Symptoms that may occur include: a painful or burning sensation when urinating, an unusual discharge from the penis, testicular pain or swelling, or fever. [en.wikipedia.org]

  Symptoms in women include Abnormal vaginal discharge, which may have a strong smell A burning sensation when urinating Pain during intercourse If the infection spreads, you might get lower abdominal pain, pain during sex, nausea, or fever. [nlm.nih.gov]

  Prostatitis may result in pain during or after sex, fever and chills, painful urination, and lower back pain. Infections in newborns. [mayoclinic.org]

• Swelling

  Epididymitis causes pain and swelling in your scrotum. [msdmanuals.com]

  Symptoms in men may include discharge from the penis, burning with urination, or pain and swelling of one or both testicles.The infection can spread to the upper genital tract in women causing pelvic inflammatory disease which may result in future infertility [play.google.com]

  Conjunctivitis is redness and swelling of the clear membrane that lines the inside of your eyelids and covers the white of your eye. This membrane is called the conjunctiva. Chlamydia is a type of bacteria that can cause infections. [summitmedicalgroup.com]

  In men: Epididymitis - infection of the tubes that carry sperm to the testicles, which can result in fever, scrotal pain and swelling. [avert.org]

• Weakness

  After controlling for potential confounders, we found a weak positive association between maternal Chlamydia during pregnancy and all CCHDs combined (aOR = 1.39; 95% CI 1.02-1.90). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Health services for screening and treatment of STIs remain weak People seeking screening and treatment for STIs face numerous problems. [web.archive.org]

  Each key question was introduced, and publications were discussed in terms of strengths, weaknesses, and overall relevance of the data to the key questions. [cdc.gov]

• Severe Pain

  Peritonitis causes more severe pain in the lower abdomen. These infections are considered pelvic inflammatory disease. [msdmanuals.com]

  In men who go untreated, chlamydia can lead to: Infertility Scarring of the urethra Prostatitis, an inflammation of the prostate gland which can come on either quickly or slowly and sometimes causes severe pain Epididymitis, an inflammation of the epididymis [everydayhealth.com]

• Rectal Pain

  Infection of the anus (rectum) presents with rectal pain, discharge, or bleeding. Self-Care Guidelines Seek medical care if you suspect chlamydia. Avoid any sexual activity until a week after treatment is finished. [skinsight.com]

  If symptoms of a rectal infection do occur, however, they may include rectal pain, discharge, or bleeding. Additionally, women can develop a throat infection if they perform oral sex on someone with the infection. [healthline.com]

  […] men or women), it can cause rectal pain, discharge, and/or bleeding. [nlm.nih.gov]

  While these infections often cause no signs or symptoms, you may experience rectal pain, discharge or bleeding. It's also possible to acquire chlamydial eye infections (conjunctivitis) through contact with infected secretions. [mayoclinic.org]

  While these infections often cause no symptoms, they can cause Rectal pain; Discharge; Bleeding. You should be examined by your doctor if you notice any of these symptoms or if your partner has an STD or symptoms of an STD. [cdc.gov]

• Lower Abdominal Pain

  She has diffuse abdominal pain with significant tenderness in both the right lower and upper quadrants. [pedsinreview.aappublications.org]

  Symptoms in women include Abnormal vaginal discharge, which may have a strong smell A burning sensation when urinating Pain during intercourse If the infection spreads, you might get lower abdominal pain, pain during sex, nausea, or fever. [nlm.nih.gov]

  Women may experience a change in vaginal discharge, cystitis (pain when passing water) and mild lower abdominal pain. If the disease is untreated, it can lead to severe pelvic pain, pain during intercourse or, more rarely, bleeding between periods. [web.archive.org]

  In women, symptoms include: Vaginal discharge Burning or pain while urinating Lower abdominal pain Nausea Fever Pain during intercourse Bleeding between periods In men, symptoms include: Penis discharge Burning or pain while urinating Burning or itching [livescience.com]

  Signs and symptoms of chlamydia trachomatis infection may include: Painful urination Lower abdominal pain Vaginal discharge in women Discharge from the penis in men Painful sexual intercourse in women Bleeding between periods and after sex in women Testicular [mayoclinic.org]

• Nausea

  Other symptoms might include belly or low back pain, nausea, fever, or pain with sexual intercourse. Men with infection may have pus or fluid from the opening of their penis (urethra) or itching or burning with urination. [skinsight.com]

  Symptoms in women include Abnormal vaginal discharge, which may have a strong smell A burning sensation when urinating Pain during intercourse If the infection spreads, you might get lower abdominal pain, pain during sex, nausea, or fever. [nlm.nih.gov]

  In women, symptoms include: Vaginal discharge Burning or pain while urinating Lower abdominal pain Nausea Fever Pain during intercourse Bleeding between periods In men, symptoms include: Penis discharge Burning or pain while urinating Burning or itching [livescience.com]

  Symptoms of PID include pain in your lower abdomen or back, pain during sex, vaginal bleeding, fever, and nausea. [babycenter.com]

  The symptoms of this are: : Pain or bleeding during sex Bleeding (or 'spotting') between periods Nausea or fever Abdominal, lower back pain or a heavy feeling around the hips Order treatment or test kit No results found. [dred.com]

• Vomiting

  Hospitalization is required if a patient is pregnant; has severe illness, nausea and vomiting, or high fever; has tuboovarian abscess; is unable to follow or tolerate the outpatient oral regimen; or has disease that has been unresponsive to oral therapy [web.archive.org]

  Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome (perihepatitis) may cause right upper quadrant pain, fever, and vomiting. [msdmanuals.com]

  If patients vomit the dose of azithromycin within one to two hours of taking the medication, an alternative treatment should be considered ( Table 1 ). 2 View/Print Table TABLE 1 CDC-Recommended Regimens for Uncomplicated Urogenital Chlamydial Infection [aafp.org]

• Right Upper Quadrant Pain

  Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome (perihepatitis) may cause right upper quadrant pain, fever, and vomiting. [msdmanuals.com]

  […] peritoneum, which is associated with right upper quadrant pain. [cdc.gov]

• Burning Sensation

  Symptoms in men include Discharge from your penis A burning sensation when urinating Burning or itching around the opening of your penis Pain and swelling in one or both testicles (although this is less common) If the chlamydia infects the rectum (in [nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms of chlamydia include an itching or burning sensation in the genitals and increased vaginal or penile discharge. Using a condom when having sex protects against the infection. [zanzu.no]

  Women with symptoms may notice An abnormal vaginal discharge; A burning sensation when urinating. [cdc.gov]

• Pelvic Pain

  Untreated infections in women can result in pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pelvic pain. In men, the infection can be associated with urethritis, epididymitis, and, in men who have sex with men, proctitis. [nejm.org]

  To avoid severe sequelae such as female infertility, ectopic pregnancy, neonatal infection, such as ophthalmitis, and chronic pelvic pain prompt and appropriate antibiotic treatment seems the best policy in treating this group of patients. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms may include intermenstrual or postcoital bleeding; an odourless, mucoid vaginal discharge; pelvic pain; or dysuria. In men, chlamydia infection can occur in the urethra, causing a penile discharge. [bestpractice.bmj.com]

  In women, the infection can result in pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), which can damage the ovaries, uterus and fallopian tubes and lead to infertility. The infection can also result in chronic pelvic pain. [livescience.com]

  However, in women, asymptomatic cervical infection may persist, resulting in chronic endometritis, salpingitis, or pelvic peritonitis and their sequelae—pelvic pain, infertility, and increased risk of ectopic pregnancy. [msdmanuals.com]

• Vaginal Discharge

  Signs of friability and purulent endocervical discharge were documented at gynaecological examination. Specimens for microscopy were taken from the endocervix and urethra as well as the vaginal discharge, and bacterial vaginosis was examined for. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] and having a thick, yellow liquid come from your vagina (vaginal discharge) Women who don't get treatment may have permanent damage making it difficult or impossible to have a baby If you're sexually active, talk to your doctor about a screening test [msdmanuals.com]

  Symptoms in women may include vaginal discharge or burning with urination. [play.google.com]

  Symptoms may include intermenstrual or postcoital bleeding; an odourless, mucoid vaginal discharge; pelvic pain; or dysuria. In men, chlamydia infection can occur in the urethra, causing a penile discharge. [bestpractice.bmj.com]

• Testicular Pain

  (for chlamydia in the eyes) Sore throat, cough, swollen lymph nodes, and/or fever (for chlamydia in the throat) Male: Itchy urethra Clear, watery or milky discharge from the penis Testicular pain or swelling Using condoms can help prevent the spread [sexandu.ca]

  […] in opening of penis Testicular pain Swelling of the testicles (although this is uncommon) Complications of untreated chlamydia can be serious for both genders. [livescience.com]

  Signs and symptoms of chlamydia trachomatis infection may include: Painful urination Lower abdominal pain Vaginal discharge in women Discharge from the penis in men Painful sexual intercourse in women Bleeding between periods and after sex in women Testicular [mayoclinic.org]

  Symptoms that may occur include: a painful or burning sensation when urinating, an unusual discharge from the penis, testicular pain or swelling, or fever. [en.wikipedia.org]

• Dysuria

  Women are usually asymptomatic, although vaginal discharge, dysuria, increased urinary frequency and urgency, pelvic pain, dyspareunia, and symptoms of urethritis may occur. [msdmanuals.com]

  Symptoms may include intermenstrual or postcoital bleeding; an odourless, mucoid vaginal discharge; pelvic pain; or dysuria. In men, chlamydia infection can occur in the urethra, causing a penile discharge. [bestpractice.bmj.com]

  In men, the infection usually is symptomatic, with dysuria and a discharge from the penis. Untreated chlamydial infection in men can spread to the epididymis. [web.archive.org]

• Urethral Discharge

  Common symptoms of STIs include vaginal discharge, urethral discharge or burning in men, genital ulcers, and abdominal pain. Scope of the problem STIs have a profound impact on sexual and reproductive health worldwide. [who.int]

  Some women with C. trachomatis infection develop urethritis; symptoms may consist of dysuria without frequency or urgency. A urethral discharge can be elicited by compressing the urethra during the pelvic examination. [web.archive.org]

  Urethritis was defined by the presence of dysuria or urethral discharge. References 1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance, 2000, Atlanta: CDC, 2001. 2. [guttmacher.org]

Chlamydia infection is ideally diagnosed by providing evidence for the presence of Chlamydiaceae in the affected organ system. Mucosal swabs are generally analyzed to this end, but other types of samples may be used depending on the clinical presentation. In the workup of genital infections, first-void urine samples may replace endocervical, urethral, and vaginal swabs, while placenta and fetal tissues should be examined in the case of an abortion possibly caused by Cp. abortus [9]. Molecular biological techniques are commonly applied to detect nucleic acids of Chlamydiaceae [3]. Such assays yield reliable results within a short period of time and have been shown to be more sensitive than bacteriological cultures [10]. Nevertheless, Chlamydiaceae may be grown in host cells, which are ideally collected alongside the specimens for microbiological analysis [4]. These samples may subsequently be subjected to microscopic and immunohistochemical analyses.

There is a variety of serological assays available to confirm prior exposure to Chlamydiaceae. These tests may be specific at the family, species, or serovar level. It should be noted, though, that previous exposure to ubiquitous pathogens like C. trachomatis serovars and Cp. pneumoniae is not sufficient to prove a causal relation.

• Chlamydia Trachomatis

  At that stage, we offered doxycycline to patients with pharyngeal Chlamydia trachomatis A total of 398 patients (52 men, 346 women) were diagnosed with pharyngeal Chlamydia trachomatis during the study period. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  They include the genera Chlamydia (of which the type species is Chlamydia trachomatis ) and Chlamydophila (eg, Chlamydophila pneumoniae and Chlamydophila psittaci ). [emedicine.com]

• Neisseria Gonorrhoeae

  Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, syphilis and Trichomonas vaginalis. [who.int]

  The incidence is 2-3 times that of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. [emedicine.com]

  Six auxotypes of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in transport media. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:1720–1. Arbique JC, Forward KR, LeBlanc J. Evaluation of four commercial transport media for the survival of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. [cdc.gov]

• Treponema Pallidum

  Patients were tested for Trichomonas vaginalis, Herpes simplex 1 and 2, Neisseria gonorrhoea, HIV, Hepatitis B and C, and Treponema pallidum when indicated. [doi.org]

• Candida

  Bacterial vaginosis, candida and trichomonas were screened. The results of symptomatic and asymptomatic groups were compared. The data was analyzed using Epi Info version 6 and "Z" test. A probability value of p ≤ 0.05 was considered as significant. [aetna.com]

Antibiotic therapy is the mainstay of treatment. Uncomplicated urogenital infections should be treated with azithromycin or doxycycline. The former is administered as a single dose of 1 g, while doxycycline is applied at a dose of 100 mg, twice daily for seven days. Both regimens are equally effective and should be followed in both sexual partners, if feasible, to prevent reinfections [3]. Still, reinfections are likely and retesting for C. trachomatis is strongly recommended about 3 months after the completion of treatment [7].

Besides the aforementioned compounds, other macrolide and tetracycline antibiotics may be employed in the management of Chlamydia infection. For instance, erythromycin and tetracycline have been recommended to treat respiratory infections triggered by Cp. pneumoniae [4]. If contraindicated or ineffective, fluoroquinolones may be used [3].

Prolonged treatment is required to combat Chlamydia-induced reactive arthritis. Affected individuals are typically treated for six months and may receive azithromycin, doxycycline, or rifampicin plus azithromycin or doxycycline [3] [7]. Infectious elementary bodies are not affected by antibiotics, so an interruption of antibiotic therapy may be considered after three months of treatment - to induce persistent bacteria to return to active reproduction [6].

Antibiotic resistances have rarely been reported, and if patients comply with treatment recommendations, they use to respond well to therapy. Thus, the prognosis of treated patients is very good. Long-term sequelae are feasible, though, if the infection persists. The majority of asymptomatic patients remains undiagnosed, and irreversible tissue damage may occur until complications arise. In this context, the generation of a protracted inflammatory response in the female reproductive organs may cause tubal scarring and occlusion, leading to infertility in women [11]. Male infertility has similarly been related to Chlamydia infection [12].

Chlamydia infection may refer to distinct entities caused by different bacterial pathogens. In this context, the family of Chlamydiaceae comprises two relevant genera, namely Chlamydia (C.) and Chlamydophila (Cp.). The following representatives of these genera have been shown to be pathogenic in humans [13]:

• C. trachomatis, serovars A-C, which constitute biovar trachoma, etiologic agent of ocular infections referred to as trachoma
• C. trachomatis, serovars D-K, provoke chlamydial urethritis, one of the most frequent bacterial sexually transmitted diseases
• C. trachomatis, serovars L1, L2, and L3, which correspond to biovar LGV, causative agent of lymphogranuloma venereum
• Cp. pneumoniae, biovar TWAR, accounts for respiratory infections
• Cp. abortus, a zoonotic agent that may cause abortion in humans, primarily known as a trigger of endemic abortion in ruminants [9]
• Cp. felis, a zoonotic pathogen that may cause conjunctivitis in humans and cats [14]
• Cp. psittaci, causative agent of ornithosis in mammals including humans, as well as psittacosis in birds, mainly in parrots [5]

By far the most common species causing chlamydia infection are C. trachomatis and Cp. pneumoniae. Other Chlamydiaceae are mainly of veterinary importance but may trigger zoonoses like ornithosis.

C. trachomatis is the causative agent of one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. According to estimates published by the World Health Organization, about 4.2% of women worldwide are infected with this pathogen. Regional values range from 1.8% to 7.6%, with the highest prevalence rates reported in the Americas and Western Pacific Region. Similar regional trends have been observed in the male population, but the overall prevalence among men is significantly lower. It amounts to 2.7% on a global scale. The annual incidence of C. trachomatis infection ranges from 33-38 per 1,000 persons [15].

Similarly, Cp. pneumoniae is widely spread throughout industrialized and developing countries. Serological evidence of prior exposure to the pathogen is found in about 50% of young adults and >75% of the elderly [4]. Due to the large share of asymptomatic and mildly symptomatic cases, the overall incidence of Cp. pneumoniae infections is difficult to establish.

Incidence and prevalence of zoonotic Chlamydia infections vary largely. In most countries with surveillance programs, <1 case of ornithosis per 1,000,000 inhabitants is reported annually [16]. The occurrence of hot spots has been confirmed occasionally but may be more common than generally assumed [17]. Mild cases may not be reported, thereby distorting the epidemiological picture. The same may apply to other forms of Chlamydia infection, which are supposed to be even rarer. Furthermore, the complete host range of Chlamydiaceae is not yet known and new species are likely to be described in the near future [18]. It can only be speculated whether these species account for or contribute to known entities.

Chlamydiaceae are obligate intracellular bacteria characterized by a unique biphasic developmental cycle. This cycle comprises the conversion of infectious elementary bodies to replicative reticulate bodies and vice versa. Elementary bodies infect epithelial cells by binding to pathogen recognition receptors and inducing endocytosis. Once inside the host cell, elementary bodies differentiate into reticulate bodies. This is a prerequisite for the replication of Chlamydiaceae. Reticulate bodies are metabolically active, grow, divide by binary fission, form microcolonies, and eventually condense to form elementary bodies [4]. The latter are released upon cell lysis and may subsequently infect other cells of the same host or be transmitted to another one.

The risk of contracting Chlamydia infection via the sexual route may significantly be diminished by the correct and consistent use of condoms, the reduction of the number of sexual partners, and abstinence [3]. Of note, the infectivity of genital secretions is maintained during a short symptomatic and a much longer asymptomatic period, so the absence of symptoms does not protect from spreading the disease. The overall infectious period for C. trachomatis has been estimated to about one year [19].

Chlamydia infection is caused by Chlamydiaceae spp. All members of this family are obligate intracellular bacteria that share common biological features, e.g., a reproductive cycle comprising infectious, extracellular elementary bodies and replicative, intracellular reticulate bodies [20]. The family of Chlamydiaceae comprises two genera, namely Chlamydia and Chlamydophila, and there are at least five human pathogen species [13] [21]:

• Chlamydia trachomatis
• Chlamydophila pneumoniae
• Chlamydophila felis
• Chlamydophila abortus
• Chlamydophila psittaci

These species are implied in a variety of disorders that are most reliably diagnosed by the genetic confirmation of the causative agent. Distinct species may trigger similar diseases (e.g., atypical pneumonia may be caused by Cp. pneumoniae and Cp. psittaci), and different conditions may be attributed to the same species (e.g., C. trachomatis may cause genital infections and conjunctivitis).

This article aims at summarizing the diversity of Chlamydia infections but will focus on genital infections with C. trachomatis and respiratory infections induced by Cp. pneumoniae. With regards to other entities related to Chlamydiaceae, the interested reader is referred to the respective articles available on this platform.

Chlamydia infection is a general term referring to a variety of diseases caused by bacteria belonging to the family of Chlamydiaceae. In this context, Chlamydia trachomatis, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, and - in rare cases - Chlamydophila felis, Chlamydophila abortus, and Chlamydophila psittaci should be considered as potential triggers. Accordingly, Chlamydia infection may comprise distinct organ systems, and clinical symptoms largely depend on the causative agent:

• There are two sexually transmitted diseases caused by Chlamydiaceae. On the one hand, certain subtypes of Chlamydia trachomatis may provoke an inflammation of the urethra, causing purulent vaginal or penile discharge and pain upon urination. When contracted anally, the disease may manifest in rectal pain, tenesmus, discharge, and hemorrhages. Other subtypes of the same species induce lymphogranuloma venereum, which is characterized by inguinal lymphadenopathy as well as hemorrhagic inflammation of the rectum and/or colon.
• Finally, Chlamydia trachomatis may cause ocular infections referred to as trachoma. Trachoma may result in severe corneal damage and blindness if not adequately treated.
• Chlamydophila pneumoniae is an ubiquitious pathogen causing respiratory infections. Affected individuals may present with sinusitis, laryngitis, pharyngitis, bronchitis, or pneumonia.

While it is increasingly difficult to prevent infections with Chlamydophila pneumoniae, safer sex may considerably reduce the risk of contracting those types of Chlamydia trachomatis that are related to genital infections. While the majority of Chlamydia infections is readily treatable, asymptomatic disease is common and rarely diagnosed. Persistent infections, however, may have long-term consequences, such as irreversible scarring of the Fallopian tubes and infertility in women and men. Similarly, ocular infections should be treated as soon as possible to prevent permanent vision loss.

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