C. trachomatis is a causative agent of a number of infections, including lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV), epididymitis, cervicitis, endometritis, salpingitis, and urethritis [1]. Chlamydia is the primary cause of non-gonococcal urethritis, constituting between 12-40% of all the remaining pathogens [1] [2] [3] [4]. Chlamydial urethritis (CU) poses a great risk for both males and females, as it may lead to numerous complications in the absence of proper therapy, such as pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), infertility, and sterility [2] [5]. Unfortunately, up to 50% of men and 70-80% of women have an asymptomatic course, which significantly delays the diagnosis [1] [6]. In symptomatic patients, main complaints are the presence of a urethral discharge, irritation of the urethra, pruritus, and dysuria [1] [7]. The urethral discharge in CU is described as clear-to-white (but it also may be mucopurulent), and most frequently appears before early morning voiding [6] [7]. Dysuria is not typically accompanied by other related signs such as increased frequency or urgency to urinate [6]. In rare cases, CU can be complicated by a form of reactive arthritis accompanied by conjunctivitis and painless mucopurulent lesions on the palms and soles, known as Reiter's syndrome [6].

• Inguinal Lymphadenopathy

  Men with HSV urethritis were significantly more likely to have meatitis (62% vs 23%, P < 0.01), genital ulceration (37% vs 0%, P < 0.01), or inguinal lymphadenopathy (30% vs 0%, P < 0.01) but less likely to have urethral discharge (32% vs 69%, P < 0.01 [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Urethritis caused by HSV or adenovirus is associated with insertive oral sex among men who have sex with men. 15 Diagnosis Men presenting with urethral symptoms should be examined for inguinal lymphadenopathy, ulcers, or urethral discharge. [aafp.org]

  Lymphogranuloma venereum (a rare, sexually transmitted tropical infection causing genital ulcers and inguinal lymphadenopathy). [patient.info]

• Reiter Syndrome

  The treatment had no effect on the complications of urethritis like prostatitis and Reiter's syndrome. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Due to a mixed infection, the Reiter's syndrome is also possible due to gonorrhea. fig. Keratoma blennorrhagicum: Reiter's syndrome (e.g. after urethritis) may result in excessive cornification of the palms or soles. Figure from Dr. M. F. [urology-textbook.com]

  In rare cases, CU can be complicated by a form of reactive arthritis accompanied by conjunctivitis and painless mucopurulent lesions on the palms and soles, known as Reiter's syndrome. [symptoma.com]

  Reiter syndrome is much less common in women as compared to men. Reiter Syndrome Reiter syndrome may follow sexually transmitted urethritis; most cases in the United States seem to occur in sexually active young men. [antimicrobe.org]

  Reiter’s syndrome (arthritis) Conjunctivitis Skin lesions Discharge Women Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) which can result in ectopic (tubal) pregnancy. Recurrent PID may lead to infertility. [ashasexualhealth.org]

• Chills

  Patients are unlikely to develop fever, chills or other systemic symptoms. Patients who develop arthritis, prostatitis or epididymitis can become feverish and have chills or nausea. [lecturio.com]

  Both men and women should call a doctor if they start urinating more frequently, or if urination causes pain or a burning discomfort, especially if fever or chills occur. [drugs.com]

  In addition, upper urinary tract infection, which is associated with systemic symptoms (e.g., fever, chills) and signs of kidney involvement (e.g., flank pain) should be excluded. [clinicaladvisor.com]

  Systemic symptoms (eg, fever, chills, sweats, nausea): Typically absent See Presentation for more detail. Diagnosis Most patients with urethritis do not appear ill and do not present with signs of sepsis. [emedicine.medscape.com]

  Fever, chills. Frequency, nocturia, urgency. Perineal pain, scrotal masses. Difficulties initiating and maintaining stream. [canada.ca]

• Lymphadenopathy

  Men with HSV urethritis were significantly more likely to have meatitis (62% vs 23%, P < 0.01), genital ulceration (37% vs 0%, P < 0.01), or inguinal lymphadenopathy (30% vs 0%, P < 0.01) but less likely to have urethral discharge (32% vs 69%, P < 0.01 [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Urethritis caused by HSV or adenovirus is associated with insertive oral sex among men who have sex with men. 15 Diagnosis Men presenting with urethral symptoms should be examined for inguinal lymphadenopathy, ulcers, or urethral discharge. [aafp.org]

  Lymphadenopathy Management and Treatment (see Figure 1 ) Gonococcal urethritis Cefixime 400 mg PO in a single dose PLUS EITHER doxycycline 100 mg PO bid for 7 days Footnote 15 [A-l] OR azithromycin 1 g PO in a single dose if poor compliance is expected [canada.ca]

  Lymphogranuloma venereum (a rare, sexually transmitted tropical infection causing genital ulcers and inguinal lymphadenopathy). [patient.info]

  In cases where urethritis is suspected, a detailed exam of the genitalia is done for skin lesions, lymphadenopathy, and epididymal or testicular tenderness and swelling. [clinicaladvisor.com]

• Chronic Infection

  Chlamydia serology can be used for diagnosing chronic infections and for estimating life-time infection but does not add to the clinical management of acute infections or the screening of asymptomatic patients. [ecdc.europa.eu]

  Rarely, chronic infections can cause scarring and fistula formation. [std.uw.edu]

  Women with chronic infection have usually manifested an IgG antibody response that may reduce the effect of chlamydial infection on these sites. [glowm.com]

• Sepsis

  Diagnosis Most patients with urethritis do not appear ill and do not present with signs of sepsis. The primary focus of the examination is on the genitalia. [emedicine.medscape.com]

  The two situations in which asymptomatic bacteriuria is treated are pregnancy, where a 7-day course of amoxicillin or nitrofurantoin is used, and preoperative antibiotic use to reduce the risk of sepsis for patients who are going to have a genitourinary [clinicaladvisor.com]

  The most severe manifestations of N gonorrhoeae infection in newborns are ophthalmia neonatorum and sepsis, including arthritis and meningitis. [atsu.edu]

• Pharyngitis

  Efforts to increase pharyngeal gonorrhoea screening among MSM could diminish STI transmission. Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Several organisms can cause nongonococcal sexually transmitted cervicitis in women and urethritis, proctitis, and pharyngitis in both sexes. [msdmanuals.com]

  […] borders produces symptoms extremely similar to gonorrhea symptoms exhibits antibiotic resistance in PPNG strains is endemic in undeveloped countries and tropical climates involves diagnosis with VDRL and rapid plasma reagin tests can be complicated by pharyngitis [quizlet.com]

  One study found that of 56 MSM who tested positive for either gonococcal or chlamydial urethritis, proctitis, or pharyngitis, only 23. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

• Cough

  It causes various respiratory-tract infections, most commonly a mild, atypical pneumonia with symptoms of fever, cough, and sore throat. Facts Matter. Support the truth and unlock all of Britannica’s content. [britannica.com]

  […] mucopurulent discharge from the urethra unilateral pain and swelling of the scrotum fever asymptomatic in 50% of patients in newborns symptoms of conjunctivitis beginning at 1-2 weeks eye discharge eyelid swelling symptoms of pneumonia beginning at 1-3 months cough [medbullets.com]

  Eosinophilia is common, and elevated IgM and other immunoglobulin levels are present. 54 Untreated infants have persistent cough and pneumonia for several weeks to months. [glowm.com]

  […] or trachoma was once the most important cause of blindness worldwide, but its role diminished from 15% of blindness cases by trachoma in 1995 to 3.6% in 2002. [16] [17] The infection can be spread from eye to eye by fingers, shared towels or cloths, coughing [en.wikipedia.org]

  Characteristic signs of chlamydial pneumonia in infants include a repetitive staccato cough with tachypnea and hyperinflation and bilateral diffuse infiltrates on a chest radiograph. Wheezing is rare, and infants are typically afebrile. [atsu.edu]

• Tachypnea

  Characteristic signs of chlamydial pneumonia in infants include a repetitive staccato cough with tachypnea and hyperinflation and bilateral diffuse infiltrates on a chest radiograph. Wheezing is rare, and infants are typically afebrile. [atsu.edu]

  Nasopharyngeal congestion and tachypnea are common. Infants are usually afebrile and lack systemic symptoms or signs, but they often fail to gain weight. Interstitial infiltrates and hyperinflation of the lungs are present on chest film. [glowm.com]

  The signs are cough, congestion, and tachypnea. Infants are usually afebrile, and rales are apparent with auscultation of the lungs. [std.uw.edu]

• Papule

  Initially the lesions are papules with a yellow center that may produce keratoderma blenorrhagicum and in males a painless circinate balanitis. [atsu.edu]

  The initial lesions are waxy papules, which display a central yellow spot. They occur most frequently on the soles and palms. [antimicrobe.org]

• Skin Rash

  There are characteristic papulopustular rashes on the skin of soles and other places, similar to pustular psoriasis or papular syphilides. There is variety of internal organ lesions. Hepatitis is most common. [iliveok.com]

• Myalgia

  Systemic signs and symptoms, such as fever, chills, or myalgia, also may be present. [ 35 ] A self-limited genital ulcer sometimes occurs at the site of inoculation. [std.uw.edu]

• Headache

  The most frequent treatment-related adverse events were dizziness, nausea, and headache in patients given trovafloxacin, and nausea, vomiting, and headache in patients given doxycycline. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Urethral Discharge

  In symptomatic patients, main complaints are the presence of a urethral discharge, irritation of the urethra, pruritus, and dysuria. [symptoma.com]

  Men with HSV urethritis were significantly more likely to have meatitis (62% vs 23%, P < 0.01), genital ulceration (37% vs 0%, P < 0.01), or inguinal lymphadenopathy (30% vs 0%, P < 0.01) but less likely to have urethral discharge (32% vs 69%, P < 0.01 [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Manifestations Urethral discharge. Dysuria. Urethral itching or meatal erythema. Often asymptomatic. [canada.ca]

  Clinical presentation Symptoms Considerations Urethral discharge Gonorrhoea - usually copious and purulent. More common in MSM and Indigenous populations. Non-gonococcal urethritis - usually less discharge. [sti.guidelines.org.au]

  CI 1.49-5.92)] and previous history of urethral discharge [OR=2.4(95%CI 1.11-5.18)]. [scielo.br]

• Dysuria

  Dysuria is not typically accompanied by other related signs such as increased frequency or urgency to urinate. [symptoma.com]

  Compared with chlamydial urethritis, men with HSV urethritis were significantly more likely to report severe dysuria (20% vs 0%, P < 0.01) or constitutional symptoms (15% vs 0%, P < 0.01). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Snapshot A 22-year-old man presents to the clinic with a complaint of a dysuria and itching with urination. He admits that he has been engaging in unprotected sexual intercourse with several females. [medbullets.com]

  Urethral syndrome/dysuria in females- infections of the cervix and vagina (vaginitis- mentioned later) can spread to the urethral opening and into the urethra causing dysuria (external dysuria). [atsu.edu]

  Overview Urethral discharge and/or dysuria are typical symptoms of male urethritis. Make a clinical diagnosis of gonorrhoea or non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU) and treat accordingly. [sti.guidelines.org.au]

• Vaginal Discharge

  […] from the eyes containing mucus or pus eyelid inflammation blepharospasm conjunctival scarring trichiasis (inward-growing eyelashes) Chlamydia in females dysuria yellow mucopurulent discharge from the urethra vaginal discharge abnormal vaginal bleeding [medbullets.com]

  There may be a slight vaginal discharge and pelvic pain. [britannica.com]

  Chlamydia Symptoms in Women: unusual or abnormal vaginal discharge, sometimes yellowish and smelly painful and frequent urinating bleeding between periods or heavy periods painful sex or bleeding after sex pain in the lower abdominal sometimes with nausea [std-gov.org]

  Men complain of glassy or purulent discharge from the urethra, Dysuria and burning in the urethra. Women complain of vaginal discharge, dysuria or abdominal pain (sign of progression to pelvic inflammatory disease). [urology-textbook.com]

  If you have trichomonas, it definitely can be transmitted to a female partner -- where it causes vaginal discharge (if it causes symptoms at all) but in general is not a serious health threat. Cranberry juice etc won't make any difference. [medhelp.org]

• Epididymal Tenderness

  For cystitis: Check for presence of suprapubic or lower abdominal tenderness, no costovertebral angle tenderness, no epididymal tenderness or prostatic tenderness on exam. [clinicaladvisor.com]

  Male Men may have: Epididymal tenderness. Mucoid or mucopurulent discharge. Perineal fullness due to prostatitis. Differential diagnosis Gonorrhoea (although co-infection is relatively common). Other causes of prostatitis / PID / epididymo-orchitis. [patient.info]

• Burning Micturition

  Case Report A 33-year-old man presented to the sexually transmitted disease clinic at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, with a mucopurulent urethral discharge and burning micturition for 20 days. [ijdvl.com]

Because of the common asymptomatic nature of the ailment, CU may be particularly hard to diagnose. For this reason, the physician must obtain a detailed patient history and conduct a proper physical examination. During the interview, the presence of symptoms, their duration, as well as severity should be assessed, whereas a history of sexual activity could identify a recent contact with partners who are already suffering from sexually transmitted infections (STIs). A urethral examination can be crucial for a presumptive diagnosis, as serial palpation of the urethra might result in the release of urethral discharge [8], which should be then collected for microbiological investigation. Swabs of the urethra and the urethral discharge must be obtained and stored very delicately, as Chlamydia rapidly dies in the external environment [5]. Several laboratory procedures are used to confirm the medical entity [5] [6] [8] [9]:

• Non-specific tests - The leukocyte esterase (LE) test, designed to detect products secreted by polymorphonuclear (PMN) cells, provides a qualitative result of an ongoing disease within 30 minutes, while enzyme immunoassay (EIA) testing for C. trachomatis may be performed [5] [6]. Although possessing a low sensitivity and specificity rate [5] [6], they are of great use in the initial diagnostic workup. The early-morning urine sample should be evaluated with non-specific tests [8]. Detection of >10 white blood cells in the urine sediment is another indication of a genitourinary disorder [5] [6] [8].
• Specific tests - Gram staining, although now being replaced by novel methods, is a highly useful and rapid procedure that excludes gram-negative diplococci on microscopic examination [4] [7], which then points to other pathogens, primarily C. trachomatis. For a definite diagnosis to be made, cultivation, direct fluorescent antibody test (DFA), cytology, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) exam need to be done [5] [6] [8].

• Pyuria

  However, approximately 20% of women with these symptoms have sterile pyuria (>8 leukocytes/mm 3 of urine) caused by chlamydiae. [glowm.com]

  The majority of patients with cystitis will have pyuria (≥10 WBCs per mm3) on microscopy; however, pyuria without symptoms and signs is not sufficient to make the diagnosis. [clinicaladvisor.com]

  Children with urethritis Sexual abuse must be considered if there are symptoms of unexplained pyuria in prepubertal boys or young males who are not sexually active (see Sexual Abuse in Peripubertal and Prepubertal Children chapter). [canada.ca]

  Dysuria (always consider chlamydia as a cause of sterile pyuria). Vague lower abdominal pain. Fever. Intermenstrual or postcoital bleeding. Deep dyspareunia. [patient.info]

  […] presence of urethral discharge, a positive leukocyte esterase test result in first-void urine, or at least 10 white blood cells per high-power field in first-void urine sediment. 16 If no discharge is present, first-void urine should be tested to document pyuria [aafp.org]

• Chlamydia Trachomatis

  trachomatis Dutch Chlamydia niet-gespecificeerde urethritis, venerische urethritis door Chlamydia trachomatis, Chlamydia trachomatis urethritis, Chlamydia trachomatis urethritis reactie, Chlamydia-urethritis French Urétrite à Chlamydiae, Urétrite à Chlamydia [fpnotebook.com]

  2013 ICD-9-CM Diagnosis Code 099.41 Other nongonococcal urethritis, chlamydia trachomatis Short description: Chlmyd trachomatis ureth. [icd9data.com]

  Abstract Trospectomycin is an aminocyclitol analog of spectinomycin with significant in vitro activity against Chlamydia trachomatis. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Pruebas disponibles para Chlamydia trachomatis EliSpot Chlamydia trachomatis EliSpot (2x tubo ACD/CPDA) IFT, ELISA, Immunoblot Anticuerpos Chlamydia trachomatis-IgA y Chlamydia trachomatis-IgG (1x Tubo de suero/SST) PCR Chlamydia trachomatis-PCR (Frotis [arminlabs.com]

Both treatments lasted for 9 days. Follow-up examinations were carried out 2 weeks (14-16 days) and 4 weeks (26-30 days) after the start of treatment. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

Expectations (prognosis) Antibiotic treatment is usually successful. Complications Narrowing (strictures) of the urethra may occur. This may require surgery to correct. [coordinatedhealth.com]

Expectations (prognosis) Antibiotic treatment is usually successful. Complications Strictures (narrowing) of the urethra may occur. This may require surgical intervention to correct. [medical-dictionary-search-engines.com]

In humans, chlamydiae are known to cause trachoma (which is still one of the major blinding diseases in the world) and are also one of the most common etiological agents of sexually transmitted diseases and the sequelae thereof, such as infertility. [books.google.com]

License: Public Domain Definition of Urethritis Urethritis is a term that means inflammation of the urethra which is usually infectious in etiology. [lecturio.com]

Etiology The etiology of most cases of NGU is not known however, Chlamydia trachomatis serovars D-K is a frequent cause (15%--55% of cases). The prevalence differs by age group, with fewer infections associated with this organism among older men. [atsu.edu]

Incubation periods ranging from 2 to 35 days have been described, and many men with nongonococcal urethritis develop urethral symptoms within 4 days, so that the incubation period is not a reliable factor in the etiologic diagnosis. [antimicrobe.org]

Trichomonas vaginalis: an anaerobic, parasitic flagellated protozoan, rare cause of urethritis ( Uncertain etiology: in 20–30%. Signs and Symptoms Urethritis: Incubation period 1–5 weeks. [urology-textbook.com]

The sensitive micro IF test is considered useful in the epidemiologic study of chlamydial infections of genital origin and can provide information about the nature of infecting strains. [jimmunol.org]

Prostitute women and AIDS: epidemiology. AIDS. 1988 Dec; 2 (6):413–419. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Pepin J, Plummer FA, Brunham RC, Piot P, Cameron DW, Ronald AR. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

(HIV) and exacerbate retroviral disease. [17] The identification of this new serovar indicates the need for larger epidemiological and clinical studies in India as characterization of C. trachomatis strains can provide important epidemiological knowledge [ijdvl.com]

American Journal of Epidemiology 1987;125:1048-1057. Raiteri R, Fora R, Sinicco A. No HIV-1 transmission through lesbian sex. Lancet 1994;344:270. Darrow WW, Echenberg DF, Jaffe HW et al. [cdc.gov]

Describe the epidemiology, spectrum, and clinical manifestations of diseases caused by C pneumoniae. Discuss the limitations of serology in the diagnosis of C pneumoniae infections in children. [pedsinreview.aappublications.org]

Insight into the pathophysiology of chla mydial infections has also increased, and new methods for the diagnosis of chlamydial infections have been introduced. [books.google.com]

Review Date: 5/5/2008 Reviewed By: Linda Vorvick, MD, Seattle Site Coordinator, Lecturer, Pathophysiology, MEDEX Northwest Division of Physician Assistant Studies, University of Washington School of Medicine; and David C. [lutheranhealthcare.org]

Urethritis can also complicate the picture of lower urinary tract infections and cystitis, Pathophysiology of Urethritis The different identified organisms for urethritis are known to be transmitted by sexual intercourse. [lecturio.com]

Pathophysiology Urethritis is an inflammatory condition that can be infectious or posttraumatic in nature. [emedicine.medscape.com]

The proper use of condoms during intercourse usually prevents infection. References U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for chlamydial infection: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. [indiatoday.intoday.in]

Part 7 of 7: Prevention How to Prevent Chlamydial Urethritis in Men Men who are sexually active can prevent STIs with safe sex practices. Male and female condoms can greatly reduce the spread of infection. [en.parsiteb.com]

This helps prevent reinfection. Without proper treatment, sexual partners may continue to pass the bacteria back and forth. [healthline.com]

The proper use of condoms during intercourse usually prevents infection. [coordinatedhealth.com]

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3. Wetmore CM, Manhart LE, Lowens MS, et al. Demographic, behavioral, and clinical characteristics of men with nongonococcal urethritis differ by etiology: a case-comparison study. Sex Transm Dis. 2011;38:180–186.
4. Falk L, Fredlund H, Jensen JS. Symptomatic urethritis is more prevalent in men infected with Mycoplasma genitalium than with Chlamydia trachomatis. Sex Transm Infect. 2004;80:289–293.
5. Chernesky MA. The laboratory diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2005;16(1):39-44.
6. Malhotra M, Sood S, Mukherjee A, Muralidhar S, Bala M. Genital Chlamydia trachomatis: An update. Indian J Med Res. 2013;138(3):303-316.
7. Moi H, Blee K, Horner PJ. Management of non-gonococcal urethritis. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:294.
8. Brill JR. Diagnosis and treatment of urethritis in men. Am Fam Physician. 2010;81(7):873-878.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines 2006: diseases characterized by urethritis and cervicitis. https://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/2010/urethritis-and-cervicitis.htm