Contrary to Wolman disease (see that term), CESD is a late-onset, progressive disorder. First symptoms may be noted in infancy, childhood, or adulthood, depending on the degree of residual enzyme activity [1]. The mean age of onset is five years, with about two thirds of all cases becoming apparent before the age of twelve [2]. As a general rule, the earlier the onset, the more rapid progression is to be expected [3].

In more severe cases, there is some clinical overlap with Wolman disease and patients may suffer from vomiting and diarrhea, abdominal distension, and failure to thrive. Other patients present with palpable hepatomegaly or hepatosplenomegaly and associated symptoms like loss of appetite, abdominal pain and lethargy. Others remain asymptomatic and are only diagnosed following laboratory analyses of blood samples with abnormal results: Biochemical analyses of CESD patients reveal elevated serum transaminases and increased LDL cholesterol and triglycerides. HDL cholesterol concentrations are usually within or even below reference ranges [1]. If liver biopsy samples are obtained, excess lipid in hepatocytes and Kupffer cells can easily be recognized. Over the course of the disease, an initial microvesicular steatosis develops into liver fibrosis and micronodular cirrhosis [3]. Of note, a liver biopsy is not mandatory for the diagnosis of CESD.

As can be seen, the clincial presentation is highly variable. This fact becomes even more clear if it is considered that symptoms may not only result from an impairment of liver function, but may also be due to excess lipid storage in other organs. For instance, CESD patients may suffer from malabsorption or cardiovascular disease like coronary heart disease or stroke at an early age. Adrenal calcifications may also be detected.

• Weight Loss

  A 21-year-old man had presented at 3 months of age with failure to thrive, malabsorption, diarrhea, weight loss, ascites, and hepatosplenomegaly. [ashpublications.org]

  Blood 2017 129:803; doi: https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2016-09-738989 A 21-year-old man had presented at 3 months of age with failure to thrive, malabsorption, diarrhea, weight loss, ascites, and hepatosplenomegaly. [bloodjournal.org]

  loss, ascites, and hepatosplenomegaly. [imagebank.hematology.org]

  Severe chronic diarrhea and weight loss in cholesteryl ester storage disease: A case report. [wjgnet.com]

  • Common risk factors for the development of choleli-thiasis include obesity, rapid weight loss, and insulin resistance.• Choledocholithiasis, which develops in about 15% of patients with cholelithiasis, occurs when stones migrate from the gallbladder [scribd.com]

• Pain

  Patients with Cholesterol Ester Storage Disease usually present with atypical complaints including abdominal pain from altered gut motility. Blood analysis typically reveals abnormal liver function tests with coincident dyslipidemia. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Block A case of abdominal pain with dyslipidemia: difficulties diagnosing cholesterol ester storage disease Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci Year: 2015 Vol. 19 - N. 14 Pages: 2628-2633 [europeanreview.org]

  RUQ abdominal pain 2. Which of the following is the gold standard for diagnosing common bile duct obstruction? a. transabdominal ultrasoundb. HIDA scanc. total bilirubind. ERCP/MRCPe. abdominal CT [scribd.com]

  Effect of hydroxyurea on the frequency of painful crises in sickle cell anemia. ‎ Página 397 - Gly Lys Lys Val Leu Gly Ala Phe Ser Asp Gly Leu Ala His Leu Asp Asn Leu Lys Gly Thr NO. ‎ [books.google.es]

  […] novel LIPA mutation (L264P) that presented massive hepatomegaly: A case report. ( 26385844 ) Kuranobu N....Kanzaki S. 2016 2 Novel mutation in a patient with cholesterol ester storage disease. ( 25722898 ) Lin P....Furuya K.N. 2015 3 A case of abdominal pain [malacards.org]

• Fever

  - A01.0 장티푸스(Typhoid fever) 살모넬라 장티푸스균에 의한 감염(Infection due to Salmonella typhi) A01.1 파라장티푸스(Paratyphoid fever) A A01.2 파라장티푸스(Paratyphoid fever) B A01.3 파라장티푸스(Paratyphoid fever) C A01.4 상세불명의 파라장티푸스(Paratyphoid fever, unspecified) 살모넬라 파라장티푸스균에 의한 [dic.impact.pe.kr]

  Case Presentation A 5-year-old south Asian female was incidentally found to have hepatomegaly on a trip to India, where she became acutely ill with fever, vomiting, and abdominal pain. [hindawi.com]

  A positive Murphy sign may be elicited.• Charcot Triad (fever, RUQ tenderness, and jaundice) is strongly indicative of cholangitis. [scribd.com]

  HSE funded research in a farming population has shown high prevalence of antibodies to: coxiella (which causes Q fever), chlamydia (which causes pscittacosis/ovine chlamydiosis) and toxoplasma (which causes toxoplasmosis). [hse.gov.uk]

  Indian J Pathol Microbiol 2018;61:302-4 Editor, We report a 7-year, 8-month-old girl who is a known case of a cyanotic congenital heart disease (subaortic ventricular septal defect) diagnosed at 2 years of age and now presented to us with a history of fever [ijpmonline.org]

• Inflammation

  […] dysfunction associated with certain drug/toxin injury can show microvesicular steatosis.[2] One important differential diagnosis is nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which is characterized by macrovesicular steatosis, hepatocellular ballooning, lobular inflammation [ijpmonline.org]

  Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) Liver inflammation and damage caused by a buildup of fat in the liver. It is part of a group of conditions called nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. P Platelets Colorless blood cells that help blood clot. [laldsource.com]

  Moderate portal fibrosis at stage 4/6 was observed without any significant portal inflammation. [genecelltissue.com]

• Fatigue

  Discussion The CESD is an uncommon lysosomal storage disorder in which patients experience fatigue, malabsorption, growth retardation, abnormal liver function tests, hepatic failure, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders. [genecelltissue.com]

  Results of pulmonary function tests show markedly decreased vital capacity, maximal breathing capacity, maximal expiratory capacity, and inspiratory static pressure, as well as early diaphragmatic fatigue. [emedicine.medscape.com]

• Splenomegaly

  Disease definition Cholesteryl ester storage disease (CESD) is a very rare, late-onset, genetic endocrine disease characterized by deficient or inactive lysosomal acid lipase (LAL) causing lipid build-up, which leads to atherosclerosis, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly [orpha.net]

  A mild hepatomegaly was the most common initial abnormality observed in all (100%) patients, while 9 (47%) patients had also a mild splenomegaly. [journals.lww.com]

  Hepatomegaly was present in 99.3% of patients; 74% also had splenomegaly. When reported, most patients had elevated serum total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, and transaminases (AST, ALT, or both), while HDL-cholesterol was decreased. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Hepatomegaly and splenomegaly are common features of other storage disorders, such as other LSDs and glycogen storage disorders (GSD). CESD can be distinguished from other storage disorders based on associated features and biochemical analysis. [accessmedicine.mhmedical.com]

• Rhinitis

  Early congenital syphilitic oculopathy) 조기 선천 매독성 골연골병증(Early congenital syphilitic osteochondropathy) 조기 선천 매독성 인두염(Early congenital syphilitic pharyngitis) 조기 선천 매독성 폐렴(Early congenital syphilitic pneumonia) 조기 선천 매독성 비염(Early congenital syphilitic rhinitis [dic.impact.pe.kr]

• Diarrhea

  Severe chronic diarrhea and weight loss in cholesteryl ester storage disease: A case report. [wjgnet.com]

  A 21-year-old man had presented at 3 months of age with failure to thrive, malabsorption, diarrhea, weight loss, ascites, and hepatosplenomegaly. [ashpublications.org]

  Blood 2017 129:803; doi: https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2016-09-738989 A 21-year-old man had presented at 3 months of age with failure to thrive, malabsorption, diarrhea, weight loss, ascites, and hepatosplenomegaly. [bloodjournal.org]

  Laboratory Hematology > Basic cell morphology > Morphologic variants of white blood cells > Histiocyte/macrophage – storage disease Published Date: 02/28/2017 A 21-year-old man had presented at 3 months of age with failure to thrive, malabsorption, diarrhea [imagebank.hematology.org]

  GI symptoms are common in patients with CESD because 30% of patients present with failure to thrive, vomiting, diarrhea, and other GI symptoms. [journals.lww.com]

• Overeating

  We present a case of a young woman with Cholesterol Ester Storage Disease who was followed over two decades. We discuss issues common to her initial protracted diagnosis with management options over time. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  We present a case of a young woman with Cholesterol Ester Storage Disease who was followed over two decades. We discuss issues common to her initial protracted diagnosis with management options over time. Free PDF Download To cite this article S.J. [europeanreview.org]

  CESD was diagnosed in me over twenty years ago when I was in my twenties but over time it has been taking its toll on my liver. CESD has given me Chronic Liver Disease which started with Fibrosis and is now progressing towards Cirrhosis. [rarediseaseday.org]

  CESD is a pan-ethnic disease affecting men and women all over the world. [symptoma.com]

  Over time, accumulations of these substances can be harmful to many organs of the body. In cholesteryl ester storage disease and Wolman disease, cholesterol and triglycerides, which are important fats (lipids) in the blood, accumulate in tissues. [msdmanuals.com]

• Abdominal Pain

  Patients with Cholesterol Ester Storage Disease usually present with atypical complaints including abdominal pain from altered gut motility. Blood analysis typically reveals abnormal liver function tests with coincident dyslipidemia. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Block A case of abdominal pain with dyslipidemia: difficulties diagnosing cholesterol ester storage disease Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci Year: 2015 Vol. 19 - N. 14 Pages: 2628-2633 [europeanreview.org]

  RUQ abdominal pain 2. Which of the following is the gold standard for diagnosing common bile duct obstruction? a. transabdominal ultrasoundb. HIDA scanc. total bilirubind. ERCP/MRCPe. abdominal CT [scribd.com]

  […] with a novel LIPA mutation (L264P) that presented massive hepatomegaly: A case report. ( 26385844 ) Kuranobu N....Kanzaki S. 2016 2 Novel mutation in a patient with cholesterol ester storage disease. ( 25722898 ) Lin P....Furuya K.N. 2015 3 A case of abdominal [malacards.org]

• Nausea

  • If obstruction is present, the patient may complain of fever, clay-colored stool, tea-colored urine, jaundice, nausea and vomiting, pruritus, and symptoms specific to pancreatitis.• On examination, the patient may appear jaundiced and RUQ tenderness [scribd.com]

  0001399 Hypercholesterolemia Elevated serum cholesterol Elevated total cholesterol Increased total cholesterol [ more ] 0003124 Hypertriglyceridemia Increased plasma triglycerides Increased serum triglycerides Increased triglycerides [ more ] 0002155 Nausea [rarediseases.info.nih.gov]

• Constipation

  Detection of LAL-D is often incidental. 4 Children and adults will present initially with asymptomatic symptoms, including nausea, abdominal pain, and constipation. 4 Liver dysfunction is commonly seen with hepatomegaly—the universal finding upon diagnosis [uspharmacist.com]

• Heart Disease

  […] lipoprotein deficiency with coronary heart disease. [malattierare.regione.veneto.it]

  E Early cardiovascular disease Under most medical guidelines, cardiovascular diseases, such as heart disease, are considered early when seen in men under the age of 55 and women under the age of 65. [laldsource.com]

  For instance, CESD patients may suffer from malabsorption or cardiovascular disease like coronary heart disease or stroke at an early age. Adrenal calcifications may also be detected. [symptoma.com]

  Indian J Pathol Microbiol 2018;61:302-4 Editor, We report a 7-year, 8-month-old girl who is a known case of a cyanotic congenital heart disease (subaortic ventricular septal defect) diagnosed at 2 years of age and now presented to us with a history of [ijpmonline.org]

  However, approximately 50% of individuals with CESD die in the second decade of life due to complications of liver disease or heart disease.[11] Infants with LAL-D typically present in the first weeks of life and die within 6–12 months due to multi-organ [en.wikipedia.org]

• Hepatomegaly

  Clinical manifestations varied from neonatal cholestasis to asymptomatic hepatomegaly. Hepatic histology showed lipid vacuoles and cholesterol ester storage in hepatocytes and Kupffer cells. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Cholesterol ester storage disease (CESD) is a chronic liver disease that typically presents with hepatomegaly. [hindawi.com]

  Massive hepatomegaly and hepatic fibrosis may lead to esophageal varices. Patients with CESD may be at risk of developing pulmonary hypertension. [bredagenetics.com]

  Hepatomegaly was the most common presenting sign, and it is reported in the literature that hepatomegaly could persist as the only CESD sign for years (8–10). Splenomegaly is less commonly reported than hepatomegaly. [journals.lww.com]

  Cholesteryl ester storage disease and Wolman disease are sphingolipidoses, an inherited disorder of metabolism, caused by lysosomal acid lipase deficiency resulting in hyperlipidemia and hepatomegaly. [msdmanuals.com]

• Hepatosplenomegaly

  Gaucher disease ( GBA mutations): overlapping clinical features of lysosomal acid lipase deficiency and Gaucher disease are hepatosplenomegaly and thrombocytopenia. [bredagenetics.com]

  ·les·ter·ol es·ter stor·age dis·ease [MIM*278000] a lipidosis caused by a deficiency of lysosomal acid lipase activity resulting in widespread accumulation of cholesterol esters and triglycerides in viscera with xanthomatosis, adrenal calcification, hepatosplenomegaly [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  Two siblings manifested with hepatosplenomegaly, ptosis, and bilateral external ophthalmoplegia. Evaluation revealed hyperlipidemia and bilateral adrenal calcifications. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Hepatosplenomegaly is a common finding in CESD and was seen in the patients of the current report. In line with this, hepatosplenomegaly was also the presenting symptom in a 2-year old CESD male reported by Dalgic et al. (5) According to Donna L. [genecelltissue.com]

• Jaundice

  Other symptoms that can develop in children include: Jaundice Calcium deposits in the adrenal glands, which causes them to harden The onset of CESD varies, and in some cases the disorder may not be diagnosed until the child reaches adulthood. [medic8.com]

  • If obstruction is present, the patient may complain of fever, clay-colored stool, tea-colored urine, jaundice, nausea and vomiting, pruritus, and symptoms specific to pancreatitis.• On examination, the patient may appear jaundiced and RUQ tenderness [scribd.com]

  Infants with this disorder appear normal at birth, but develop progressive mental deterioration, low muscle tone, jaundice, anemia, vomiting, malnourishment, gastrointestinal problems, and calcium deposits in the adrenal glands, causing them to harden [sharecare.com]

  […] xanthomatosis include clouding of the lenses of the eyes (cataracts) and chronic diarrhea in childhood; a reduced ability to produce and release a digestive fluid called bile (cholestasis), which can lead to a yellowing of the skin or whites of the eyes (jaundice [icdlist.com]

  They may have signs of bile duct problems, like itchiness, jaundice, pale stool, or dark urine. Their feces may be excessively greasy. [en.wikipedia.org]

• Eruptions

  […] hyperlipidemia NOS Elevated cholesterol with elevated triglycerides NEC Fredrickson's hyperlipoproteinemia, type IIb or III Hyperbetalipoproteinemia with prebetalipoproteinemia Hypercholesteremia with endogenous hyperglyceridemia Hyperlipidemia, group C Tubo-eruptive [icd10data.com]

• Suggestibility

  However, clinical, genetic, and histopathologic differences suggest that the two conditions are separate diseases not completely explained by deficient enzyme activity. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Confusion

  CESD may initially be confused with familial hypercholesterolemia because of increased serum concentration of total cholesterol and LDL; mutation of LDLR, APOB, or PCSK9 accounts for 60%-80% of familial hypercholesterolemia. [bredagenetics.com]

  Cautions Discusses conditions that may cause diagnostic confusion, including improper specimen collection and handling, inappropriate test selection, and interfering substances This test cannot reliably determine carrier status for cholesteryl ester storage [mayomedicallaboratories.com]

  […] receive no diagnosis or the incorrect diagnosis. 4 The abnormalities hepatomegaly, elevated transaminases, and dyslipidemia also occur in other cardiovascular, liver, and metabolic diseases that are more prevalent than LAL-D. 4,15 LAL-D may often be confused [uspharmacist.com]

• Seizure

  These neurological problems include recurrent seizures (epilepsy), movement disorders, impaired speech (dysarthria), loss of sensation in the arms and legs (peripheral neuropathy), decline in intellectual function (dementia), hallucinations, and depression [icdlist.com]

  Alpha-fucosidosis: Clinical features include progressive neuromotor deterioration, seizures (including myoclonic seizures), coarse facial features, dysostosis multiplex, angiokeratoma corporis diffusum, hepatosplenomegaly, and growth retardation. [emedicine.medscape.com]

CESD-associated hepatopathy may be mistaken for viral hepatitis or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, specifically for non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. To rule out these differential diagnoses, molecular biological and serological tests should be performed. Due to the relatively high incidence of these disorders, the respective analyses are usually carried out before a thorough genetic workup is started [3].

Disturbances of low-density lipoprotein metabolism may be triggered by a variety of gene mutations, with sequence anomalies interfering with the function of the low-density lipoprotein receptor being the most common ones. The latter cause familial hypercholesterolemia, which is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. It should thus be possible to distinguish it from CESD after obtaining the patient's family history. Nevertheless, lysosomal acid lipase deficiency has occasionally been observed in individuals diagnosed with familial hypercholesterolemia and cases of autosomal recessive familial hypercholesterolemia have also been described [4] [5]. It is therefore recommendable to test for a variety of gene defects in case of hypercholesterolemia and negativity for familial hypercholesterolemia-associated mutations. Gene panel sequencing is the approach of choice to detect rare causes of hereditary liver disease in the absence of any concrete suspicion.

Enzyme activity measurements may either be carried out to confirm the pathogenicity of LIPA mutations detected by means of gene panel sequencing, or they may be realized in advance. Indeed, the latter represents the more direct approach to CESD diagnosis, but requires a corresponding suspicion. While very low levels of lysosomal acid lipase activity are considered diagnostic for CESD, intermediate results may not allow for an immediate diagnosis: They need to be confirmed by identifying the causal gene defect. Peripheral blood leukocytes, dried blood spots, skin fibroblasts and hepatocytes are suitable for the determination of lysosomal acid lipase activity.

Because CESD follows a progressive course, patients should undergo regular follow-ups to monitor disease evolution. Laboratory analyses of blood samples including liver function tests and lipid profiles should be carried out annually. Diagnostic imaging is recommended to evaluate the condition of liver, spleen, and other organ systems [3].

• Liver Biopsy

  METHODS AND RESULTS: We analysed a series of 16 liver biopsies of LAL deficiency of the CESD type confirmed by enzyme testing and DNA sequencing. The biopsy appearances were compared with those of biopsies of other causes of fatty liver. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Liver biopsy, as a reliable method, could show significant fat storage in hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, and macrophages. [genecelltissue.com]

  A liver biopsy was performed. Light microscopy showed liver tissue with largely maintained lobular architecture. [ijpmonline.org]

The primary aim of CESD therapy has long since been to lower plasma lipid levels. This has been achieved by means of applying 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibitors, usually referred to as HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors or simply statins. However, it has been pointed out that this way, the reduction of plasma lipid concentrations may only be obtained at the expense of cholesteryl ester and triglyceride storage in tissues, thereby possibly even favoring liver failure [3]. Enzyme replacement therapy has been proposed as a distinct approach to avoid that risk and in 2015, sebelipase alfa, a recombinant human lysosomal acid lipase, has been approved to treat CESD in Europe and North America [2]. Because since then little time has passed, long-term outcomes of sebelipase alfa therapy are not yet available, but interim results are highly promising [2] [6] [7].

The majority of plasma cholesterol is contained in low-density lipoproteins and high levels of LDL cholesterol constitute a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease. With regards to cholesterol esters stored elsewhere, lipid accumulation within lysosomes of hepatocytes may strongly interfere with liver function and eventually provoke liver failure. Before sebelipase alfa became available for CESD treatment, either disorder typically caused a considerable reduction of life quality or even the premature death of the affected individual. Today, there is hope that enzyme replacement therapy may increase the patient's life expectancy [6].

CESD develops due to lysosomal acid lipase deficiency. This enzyme is encoded by the LIPA gene, which is located on the long arm of chromosome 10. The disease is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern, i.e., affected individuals carry two defective alleles. Both homozygosity and compound heterozygosity may lead to the disease [8]. In fact, several dozen mutations in the LIPA gene have been described and are associated with distinct degrees of enzyme deficiency. Presumably, symptoms are to be expected in those with an enzyme activity of <10% [8]. Of note, patients suffering from Wolman disease typically show residual enzyme activites of <1%.

As of 2013, a total of 206 cases has been reported in literature - 71 pediatric cases and 135 adult cases [9]. However, there is a general consensus in that the disease is severely underdiagnosed. This particularly applies to the milder, even asymptomatic forms of the disease. Accordingly, estimates regarding the prevalence of the disease vary significantly and range between 1 in 40,000 and 1 in 300,000 individuals [8]. While lower estimates have been derived from clinical data, higher estimates are based on the frequency of potentially pathogenic variants of the LIPA gene and presumably include undiagnosed cases.

CESD is a pan-ethnic disease affecting men and women all over the world. The disease' prevalence may be slightly higher among European Caucasians because a relatively high carrier rate of about 1 in 200 has been determined for this population and the most common CESD-causing mutation, a splice junction mutation of exon 8 [10] [11]. Considering that this mutation is responsible for slightly more than half of all cases, the heterozygote frequency for all LIPA mutations may be estimated to almost 1 in 100 individuals [7].

The cellular uptake of low-density lipoproteins including their cargo, namely cholesteryl esters, triglycerides, and other lipophilic substances, is mostly mediated by the low-density lipoprotein receptor. They are subsequently transported to the lysosomes, where cholesteryl esters and triglycerides are to be hydrolyzed. These reactions are catalyzed by the enzyme lysosomal acid lipase. In patients suffering from CESD, the activity of this enzyme is reduced to levels <10% of that measured in healthy individuals and consequently, cholesteryl esters and triglycerides cannot be broken down and accumulate within the lysosome.

Under physiological conditions, the degradation of cholesteryl esters and triglycerides yields cholesterol and free fatty acids. Because this process is disturbed in CESD patients, cytosolic cholesterol levels are well below reference ranges, causing the cell to take compensatory actions: On the one hand, the expression of the low-density lipoprotein receptor is augmented, and on the other hand, the endogenous production of cholesterol is enhanced. To facilitate the export of cholesterol from hepatocytes, increased quantities of apolipoprotein B are synthesized. More very light-density lipoproteins are released and subsequently transformed into low-density lipoproteins. At the same time, the expression of the ABCA1 transporter, which is required for the exocytosis of high-density lipoproteins, is reduced. This explains the laboratory results detailed above: permanent hypercholesterolemia, increased LDL cholesterol and decreased HDL cholesterol [2].

Couples with a known family history of CESD or Wolman disease may benefit from genetic counseling. Additionally, the prenatal diagnosis of CESD is feasible.

CESD is a rare lysosomal storage disease caused by mutations in the gene encoding for lysosomal acid lipase. Distinct mutations have been described and associated with more or less severe reductions of enzyme activity. Residual enzyme activity determines the severity of the disease: While the near-total absence of functional lysosomal acid lipase results in a neonatal-onset, fulminant form of CESD that is also known as Wolman disease, the term CESD is usually reserved for milder cases [1] [12].

Lysosomal acid lipase has also been named cholesteryl ester hydrolase because its main function is the breakdown of cholesteryl esters contained in low-density lipoproteins. To a lesser extent, lysosomal acid lipase is also required for the degradation of triglycerides. Consequently, affected individuals suffer from excess cholesteryl ester and triglyceride storage, from hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia and their possible consequences. Since both conditions are frequently encountered but patients are rarely checked for CESD-associated mutations, it has been speculated that CESD is largely underdiagnosed [8].

Cholesteryl esters and triglycerides are deposited in liver, spleen, kidneys, vessels and virtually all other organs that contain cells of the monocyte–macrophage cell lineage. The disease follows a progressive course and may eventually lead to organ failure, with liver failure being observed most commonly. Additionally, cardiovascular events may occur in affected individuals long before they would be expected due to age-related changes. In sum, CESD often decreases life quality and may even provoke premature death.

While lipid-lowering therapy and possibly hematopoietic stem cell or liver transplantation have long since been the only, but less than satisfactory treatment options, the recent approval of a recombinant human lysosomal acid lipase for CESD therapy gives new hope to those affected by this lysosomal storage disease [6].

Cholesterol ester storage disease (CESD) is a metabolic disorder associated with increased plasma cholesterol levels and an impairment of liver function. It is a genetic disorder inherited in an autosomal recessive manner and provoked by the near-total absence of an enzyme called lysosomal acid lipase. This enzyme is required for the breakdown of cholesterol esters after their uptake into liver cells and other cells throughout the whole body. Because the enzyme's activity is considerably reduced in those affected by CESD, cholesterol esters accumulate within the respective cells. Over the course of time, this process increasingly interferes with cell and organ function. In detail, CESD causes liver enlargement, possibly followed by liver fibrosis and cirrhosis, and atherosclerosis, which predisposes for coronary heart disease and stroke. Depending on the degree of residual enzyme activity, first symptoms and complications may appear in infancy, childhood, or adulthood.

Since 2015, a recombinant human lysosomal acid lipase has been available for the treatment of CESD. This recombinant enzyme replaces the missing or inactive enzyme in the patient's body and is able to lower plasma cholesterol concentrations as well as cholesterol ester storage in liver, vessels, and other organs. Although long-term results of such a therapy are not yet available, results obtained so far are highly promising and give new hope for better life quality and an increased life expectancy to those suffering from this rare disease.

1. Bernstein DL, Hülkova H, Bialer MG, Desnick RJ. Cholesteryl ester storage disease: review of the findings in 135 reported patients with an underdiagnosed disease. J Hepatol. 2013; 58(6):1230-1243.
2. Camarena C, Aldamiz-Echevarria LJ, Polo B, et al. Update on lysosomal acid lipase deficiency: Diagnosis, treatment and patient management. Med Clin (Barc). 2017; 148(9):429.e421-429.e410.
3. Reiner Ž, Guardamagna O, Nair D, et al. Lysosomal acid lipase deficiency--an under-recognized cause of dyslipidaemia and liver dysfunction. Atherosclerosis. 2014; 235(1):21-30.
4. Sjouke B, Defesche JC, de Randamie JSE, Wiegman A, Fouchier SW, Hovingh GK. Sequencing for LIPA mutations in patients with a clinical diagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia. Atherosclerosis. 2016; 251:263-265.
5. Soutar AK, Naoumova RP. Autosomal recessive hypercholesterolemia. Semin Vasc Med. 2004; 4(3):241-248.
6. Erwin AL. The role of sebelipase alfa in the treatment of lysosomal acid lipase deficiency. Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 2017; 10(7):553-562.
7. Maciejko JJ. Managing Cardiovascular Risk in Lysosomal Acid Lipase Deficiency. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2017; 17(3):217-231.
8. Vinje T, Wierød L, Leren TP, Strom TB. Prevalence of cholesteryl ester storage disease among hypercholesterolemic subjects and functional characterization of mutations in the lysosomal acid lipase gene. Mol Genet Metab. 2017.
9. Freudenberg F, Bufler P, Ensenauer R, Lohse P, Koletzko S. Cholesteryl ester storage disease: an easily missed diagnosis in oligosymptomatic children. Z Gastroenterol. 2013; 51(10):1184-1187.
10. Muntoni S, Wiebusch H, Jansen-Rust M, et al. Prevalence of cholesteryl ester storage disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2007; 27(8):1866-1868.
11. Scott SA, Liu B, Nazarenko I, et al. Frequency of the cholesteryl ester storage disease common LIPA E8SJM mutation (c.894G>A) in various racial and ethnic groups. Hepatology. 2013; 58(3):958-965.
12. Anderson RA, Bryson GM, Parks JS. Lysosomal acid lipase mutations that determine phenotype in Wolman and cholesterol ester storage disease. Mol Genet Metab. 1999; 68(3):333-345.