The clinical presentation can somewhat vary depending on the drug used, but the persistent need for drug use despite potentially harmful consequences, inability to regulate the frequency of its consumption and prioritizing its consumption over all other activities are hallmarks of drug dependence [1]. Two main types of dependence are recognized [2] [3]:

• Physical - Avoidance of undesired physical effects that occur due to the cessation of drug use, or withdrawal, are the primary reason for continuing drug use and development of dependence. Central nervous system hyperactivity, mydriasis, tremors, gastrointestinal irritation, and diarrhea are typical for opioid withdrawal, including heroin, while tachycardia, hyperreflexia, confusion, and seizures are reported after cessation of benzodiazepine use. Physical dependence is typical for cocaine, (presenting as a serious depressive reaction and intense fatigue accompanied by sleepiness) and alcohol, which usually manifests with CNS hyperactivity and constitutional symptoms, although more severe signs (hallucinations, delirium tremens) may be seen in severely dependent individuals.
• Psychological dependence - Euphoria, alleviation of anxiety, alterations in behavior, perception, and mental state, are the main features of dependence on hallucinogenic substances (lysergic acid, mescaline, psilocybin), marijuana, amphetamines and 3,4 -methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA).

It is important to note that both physical and psychological dependence may be encountered in patients, making additional criteria highly useful in defining the diagnosis. Symptoms such as craving, tolerance (necessity to use larger amounts over time), repeated attempts to quit or control drug use, as well as giving up daily life activities due to dependence can be reported. When three or more symptoms are reported within a 12-month period, the diagnosis can be confirmed based on clinical criteria [2] [4].

• Pain

  Low back pain (LBP) occurred in 96 patients, whereas 22 had shoulder pain, 8 had hip pain, and 77 had knee pain. Patients were divided into drug dependence and nondrug dependence groups based on the Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS) scores. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Disability

  1075 African Americans Epidemiology Prevention and Treatment Issues 1093 Hispanic Americans 1103 Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders 1113 Alcohol Use Among American Indians and Alaskan Natives 1119 Gays Lesbians and Bisexuals 1129 The Homeless 1141 Disability [books.google.com]

  Drug abuse affects the entire population, and illegal drugs are more prevalent among the younger population, which can cause disability and great morbidity for the suffering of many different diseases, including neuropsychiatric ones, of which we are [uv.es]

  WVU is an EEO/Affirmative Action employer — Minority/Female/Disability/Veteran. Follow WVU Potomac State College on: Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Flickr RSS Feed [potomacstatecollege.edu]

  Side effects and withdrawal effects can be severe and last for months and sometimes years, leading to disability. [cnwl.nhs.uk]

  Abstract The single most preventable cause of disease, disability, and death in the United States is tobacco use. [doi.org]

• Weight Loss

  Half of them consumed MPH daily by intravenous route and reported amphetamine-like effects (cardiovascular events, weight loss, psychiatric adverse events). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Physical Loss or increase in appetite, change in eating habits, unexplained weight loss or gain Slowed or staggered walking, bumping into things Smell of alcohol on breath Slow or slurred speech Irregular sleep patterns, having difficulty sleeping, awake [sfad.org.uk]

  Lose weight if you’re overweight or obese. Weight loss won’t eliminate your risk of a hernia, but it will ease the strain on your abdominal muscles. [healthline.com]

• Weight Gain

  It is due to weakened abdominal muscles, straining, and weight gain. This can occur in women, but men are eight to ten times more likely to be affected by an inguinal hernia than women. [study.com]

  Acquired hernias are caused by the wear and tear of living, such as childbirth, weight gain, and other muscle strain. Congenital hernias are present from birth and happen at points of weakness in the abdominal wall. [herniaclinic.co.nz]

  Obesity doi: 10.1002/oby.20882 Yokum S, Ng J, Stice E (2011) Attentional bias to food images associated with elevated weight and future weight gain: an fMRI study. [doi.org]

  Others are caused by excessive strain on the abdominal wall from heavy lifting, weight gain, coughing, or difficulty with bowel movements and urination. [generalsurgery.ucsf.edu]

• Fatigue

  Physical dependence is typical for cocaine, (presenting as a serious depressive reaction and intense fatigue accompanied by sleepiness) and alcohol, which usually manifests with CNS hyperactivity and constitutional symptoms, although more severe signs [symptoma.com]

  Many people in our society are dependent on caffeine and experience withdrawal symptoms such as headache, fatigue, and difficulty concentrating if they miss their morning cup of coffee 8. [drugabuse.com]

  In the developing world, khat is often used to relieve fatigue. 13 Because physiological withdrawal is unknown with khat, no substitution is required. 7.2.3. [journals.lww.com]

  Theodor Aschenbrandt, a German army physician, prescribed cocaine to Bavarian soldiers during training to help reduce fatigue (7). [pbs.org]

  […] class ; declining grades; suddenly getting into trouble at school Missing medications, prescriptions, money or valuables Acting uncharacteristically isolated, withdrawn, angry, or depressed Sudden mood changes or repeated health complaints, constant fatigue [helpguide.org]

• Yawning

  In addition, the March of Dimes also lists the symptoms: Fussiness, excessive crying or having a high-pitched cry Fever, sweating or blotchy skin Trouble sleeping and lots of yawning Stuffy nose or sneezing Treatment for babies Babies with NAS can be [web.archive.org]

  Yawning. Being off food. Stomach cramps. Feeling sick (nausea) or being sick (vomiting). Diarrhoea. Tremor. Poor sleep. Restlessness. General aches and pains. Just feeling awful. Tolerance is usually a part of dependence. [patient.info]

  Opioid withdrawal Opioid withdrawal symptoms are caused by sympathetic overactivity and include tachycardia, anxiety, restlessness, insomnia, sweating, diarrhea, rhinorrhea, muscle aches, yawning, and “gooseflesh.” [journals.lww.com]

• Nausea

  Alcoholism is a disease with four main features: craving - a strong need to drink loss of control - not being able to stop drinking once you've started physical dependence - withdrawal symptoms, such as nausea, sweating, or shakiness when you don't drink [icd9data.com]

  As alcohol also irritates the stomach, heavy drinking can cause sickness and nausea, and sometimes diarrhoea. Alcohol also has a dehydrating effect, which is the main reason why excessive drinking can lead to a hangover. [ufs.ac.za]

  However, THC-based drugs to treat pain and nausea are already FDA approved and prescribed, and scientists continue to investigate the medicinal properties of other chemicals found in the cannabis plant—such as cannabidiol, a non-psychoactive cannabinoid [web.archive.org]

  These symptoms include: anxiety depression muscle weakness nightmares body aches sweating nausea vomiting When drug abuse escalates to dependence, treatment becomes complicated. [healthline.com]

  Common complications include nausea, vomiting, urinary retention, sore throat, and headache. More serious problems include heart attack, stroke, pneumonia, and blood clots in the legs. [generalsurgery.ucsf.edu]

• Constipation

  The easiest way to think about the causes of inguinal hernias is to think of: Increased intra-abdominal pressure Weakness of the abdominal muscles The causes are therefore as follows: Chronic cough Constipation Heavy lifting Advanced age Obesity How do [geekymedics.com]

  COPD, bladder outflow obstruction, chronic constipation etc. Increased abdominal pressure is transmitted to both sides and as a result, direct hernias are usually bilateral. [radiopaedia.org]

  Other risk factors include aging, frequent coughing such as from smoking, straining from constipation or heavy lifting, and family history. [study.com]

  Treatment If you have an inguinal hernia, a high-fiber diet with plenty of veggies, fresh fruits, and whole grains may help you avoid constipation, which can lead to painful symptoms. [webmd.com]

• Failure to Thrive

  These problems can lead to difficulties in feeding, which can mean weight loss or failure to thrive. Difficulties with state regulation. [web.archive.org]

• Abdominal Pain

  Chest pain is possible and can be caused by heart or lung damage from drug abuse. Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea are possible. Vomiting blood, or blood in bowel movements, can be life threatening. [emedicinehealth.com]

• Jaundice

  The drug brinqs hell and purgatory only to those who have had a recent case of jaundice, or who suffer from periodical depressions or a chronic anxiety...But the reasonably healthy person knows in advance that-mescaline is completely innocuous, that its [druglibrary.org]

• Redness of Eye

  watery eyes, pupils larger or smaller than usual, blank stare Extreme hyperactivity, excessive talking Behaviour Changes in overall attitude or personality with no other cause Changes in friends, avoiding old friends, friends who are known alcohol or [sfad.org.uk]

• Suggestibility

  CONCLUSIONS: The current evidence suggests that acupuncture may have some effects on drug dependence that have been missed because of choice of outcome in many previous studies, and future studies should use outcomes suggested by clinical experience. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Anhedonia

  Pers Soc Psychol Bull 31:121–135. doi: 10.1177/0146167204271309 PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar Wise RA (1982) Neuroleptics and operant behavior: The anhedonia hypothesis. [doi.org]

  Novelty reward as a measure of anhedonia. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2005; 29 :707–714. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Bjornebekk A, Mathe AA, Brene S. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Denial

  Denial among users was 69.2% and denial among negative self report was 45%. A poor level of agreement (K) was found between results of self-report and urinalysis for all the treatment seekers. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Though "denial" used to be considered a symptom of addiction, recent research has shown that people who are addicted have far less denial if they are treated with empathy and respect, rather than told what to do or "confronted." [web.archive.org]

  It is characterized by impaired control over drinking, preoccupation with the drug alcohol, use of alcohol despite adverse consequences, and distortions in thinking, most notably denial. Each of these symptoms may be continuous or periodic. [icd9data.com]

  Though denial is a common symptom of addiction, people who are addicted have far less denial if they are treated with empathy and respect, rather than told what to do or being confronted. [medlineplus.gov]

  You may be met with excuses, denial or anger. Be prepared to respond with specific examples of behavior that has you worried. Don’t expect the person to stop without help: you have heard it before - promises to cut down, stop - but, it doesn’t work. [psychiatry.org]

• Aggressive Behavior

  Risk Factors Protective Factors Aggressive behavior in childhood 13,14 Good self-control 15 Lack of parental supervision 14,16 Parental monitoring and support 16-18 Poor social skills 13,17,18 Positive relationships 17,19 Drug experimentation 14,20,21 [drugabuse.gov]

  Risk and Protective Factors for Drug Misuse and Addiction Aggressive behavior in childhood/Good self-control Lack of parental supervision/Parental monitoring and support Poor social skills/Positive relationships Drug experimentation/Academic competence [psychiatry.org]

  Frank, Prenatal, perinatal, and adolescent exposure to marijuana: Relationships with aggressive behavior, Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 58, (60), (2016). [doi.org]

  Intense cocaine self-administration after episodic social defeat stress, but not after aggressive behavior: dissociation from corticosterone activation. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Suicidal Ideation

  Lynskey MT, Glowinski AL, Todorov AA, Bucholz KK, Madden PA, Statham DJ, Martin NG, Heath AC: Major depressive disorder, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempt in twins discordant for cannabis dependence and early-onset cannabis use. [doi.org]

• Seizure

  Central nervous system hyperactivity, mydriasis, tremors, gastrointestinal irritation, and diarrhea are typical for opioid withdrawal, including heroin, while tachycardia, hyperreflexia, confusion, and seizures are reported after cessation of benzodiazepine [symptoma.com]

  Detoxification facilities where the drug dependent person can withdraw under medical care e.g. vigilance of seizures and appropriate medical intervention including anti-seizure medications. [psychologymatters.asia]

  Abstinence or withdrawal from alcohol may produce withdrawal seizures and delirium tremens. [journals.lww.com]

  They might even experience seizures. As a result, people with a CNS depressant habit often need the help of medical treatment programs in order to recover. [americanaddictioncenters.org]

  Some drugs of abuse such as benzodiazepines (e.g., Valium and Xanax) and barbiturates (e.g., Seconal) produce a pronounced physical dependence in some people, and have potentially severe associated withdrawal symptoms such as seizures that can even prove [projectknow.com]

• Irritability

  Central nervous system hyperactivity, mydriasis, tremors, gastrointestinal irritation, and diarrhea are typical for opioid withdrawal, including heroin, while tachycardia, hyperreflexia, confusion, and seizures are reported after cessation of benzodiazepine [symptoma.com]

  As alcohol also irritates the stomach, heavy drinking can cause sickness and nausea, and sometimes diarrhoea. Alcohol also has a dehydrating effect, which is the main reason why excessive drinking can lead to a hangover. [ufs.ac.za]

  Long-term marijuana users trying to quit report withdrawal symptoms including irritability, sleeplessness, decreased appetite, anxiety, and drug craving, all of which can make it difficult to abstain. [web.archive.org]

  […] friends, friends who are known alcohol or drug users Changes in habits at home, loss of interest in family and family activities Can’t pay attention, forgetting things Not motivated to do anything, has no energy or self-esteem Moody, has sudden outbursts, irritated [sfad.org.uk]

  Stimulants (including amphetamines, cocaine, crystal meth): Dilated pupils; hyperactivity; euphoria; irritability; anxiety; excessive talking followed by depression or excessive sleeping at odd times; may go long periods of time without eating or sleeping [helpguide.org]

• Headache

  J Headache Pain. 2012 Nov;13(8):653-60. doi: 10.1007/s10194-012-0492-z. Epub 2012 Oct 18. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Many people in our society are dependent on caffeine and experience withdrawal symptoms such as headache, fatigue, and difficulty concentrating if they miss their morning cup of coffee 8. [drugabuse.com]

  Common complications include nausea, vomiting, urinary retention, sore throat, and headache. More serious problems include heart attack, stroke, pneumonia, and blood clots in the legs. [generalsurgery.ucsf.edu]

• Apathy

  Drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine are associated with severe emotional withdrawal symptoms such as depression and apathy, and people may be at risk for accidents due to issues with judgment during the withdrawal period. 5 Alcoholism Treatment [projectknow.com]

  The link between dopamine function and apathy in cannabis users: an [18F]-DOPA PET imaging study. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 231, 2251–2259 (2014) 103. von Sydow, K., Lieb, R., Pfister, H., Hofler, M. & Wittchen, H. U. [doi.org]

  Apathy and the functional anatomy of the prefrontal cortex-basal ganglia circuits. Cereb Cortex. 2006; 16 :916–928. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhj043. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ] 122. Goldman-Rakic PS. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Agitation

  Alternatively, the person may be agitated, angry, anxious, and unable to sleep. Hallucinations are possible. Abnormal vital signs (temperature, pulse rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure ) are possible and can be life threatening. [emedicinehealth.com]

  Stimulants (including Ritalin, Concerta, Adderall, Dexedrine): Dilated pupils, reduced appetite; agitation, anxiety, irregular heartbeat, high body temperature; insomnia, paranoia. [helpguide.org]

  As these synthetic cannabinoids cause tachycardia, agitation, and nausea, supportive care will be needed for 8 hours after use. 28 7.4.3. [journals.lww.com]

  If you feel relaxed and happy when you are high, then you experience intense anxiety and agitation when you are in withdrawal. You may feel sick when you try to stop using, and you need to keep using to feel normal. [wikihow.com]

  Withdrawal from Meth is associated with disturbed sleep, anxiety, depressed mood, reduced energy and agitation ( McGregor et al., 2005 ). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Sexual Dysfunction

  dysfunction F19.182 Other psychoactive substance abuse with psychoactive substance-induced sleep disorder F19.188 Other psychoactive substance abuse with other psychoactive substance-induced disorder F19.19 …… with unspecified psychoactive substance-induced [icd10data.com]

The diagnostic workup must start with a carefully obtained patient history, as only a few questions during the interview may reveal the cause of symptoms and the substance that caused dependence. Physicians must bear in mind that peak dependence rates are during adolescence - Alcohol and marijuana dependence most likely occurs around 17-18 years of age, whereas cocaine abuse peaks around 23-25 years. of age [5]. What is worrisome is that more than 10% of cocaine, marijuana and alcohol users become dependent within the first 10 years of use [5]. These findings further emphasize the importance of a meticulous patient history regarding prior substance use and additional questions that will identify whether diagnostic criteria for dependence can be met [2]. More importantly, information from parents, close relatives or friends may be particularly helpful when there is a suspicion of drug dependence, as the patient may not always disclose such information. If the diagnosis is not confirmed, toxicology testing can be performed for marijuana, cocaine, opioids, amphetamines, phencyclidine, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and alcohol [2]. Urine is tested most commonly, while blood, saliva, sweat or hair samples can be used as well [2].

This increase was statistically significant (p < 0.001), and both single or multiple treatments led to longer abstinence periods than before the first ibogaine session (p < 0.001). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

But experience has shown that the prognosis for those who do continue to take the drug in these circumstances is not good. [economist.com]

[…] or probe pressure should restore continuity of peritoneal stripe bowel should demonstrate peristalsis blood flow, as demonstrated by power Doppler, should be present bowel wall should be < 4 mm, layered, and lack surrounding free fluid Treatment and prognosis [radiopaedia.org]

Prognosis of Drug Dependence & Abuse The importance of abstaining from drug use is clear given the devastating, sometimes fatal prognosis of drug abuse and dependence. Drug abuse can affect every major organ system, even after a single use. [emedicinehealth.com]

BACKGROUND: We investigated the etiological nature of comorbid alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis DSM-IV dependence symptoms in late adolescence and young adulthood while accounting for gender differences in the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

Factors explaining variance in beliefs among addiction-treatment providers regarding the etiology of addiction were investigated ( n = 295). [doi.org]

Author information 1 Laboratory of Biostatistics, Epidemiology, Clinical Research and Health Economics, UPRES EA2415, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France. 2 Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Montpellier, Montpellier [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

Medical Complications of Drug Use 840 Acute and Chronic Pain 863 Substance Use Disorders in Individuals with CoOccurring Psychiatric Disorders 904 Epidemiology and Emerging Public Health Perspectives 913 HIVRelated Medical Complications and Treatment [books.google.com]

A greater understanding of the associated changes in brain pathophysiology supports the notion that pharmacological treatments are part of the necessary treatment options. Craving is a core symptom of addictive disorder. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

Anatomy Hesselbach triangle borders References:[3] Pathophysiology Direct inguinal hernia Acquired condition Caused by weakening of the transversalis fascia Medial to the inferior epigastric blood vessels (within Hesselbach triangle) Hernial sac protrudes [amboss.com]

David P Finn, Maria-Paz Viveros and Eva M Marco, The endocannabinoid system and emotional processing: pathophysiology and therapeutic potential, Journal of Psychopharmacology, 26, 1, (3), (2012). Shizhong Han, Bao-Zhu Yang, Henry R. [doi.org]

Logistic regression was used to determine whether the CFMs of AODD adults were more likely to be diagnosed with medical conditions, or get preventive care, than the CFMs of adults with asthma or diabetes. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

(a) Notwithstanding any other law, the City and County of San Francisco may approve entities to establish and operate overdose prevention programs for persons 18 years of age or older that satisfy the requirements set forth in subdivision (c). [leginfo.legislature.ca.gov]

[…] and Treatment of Addiction Among African Americans 1250 The Public Health Approach to the Prevention of Substance Abuse 1255 Medical Education in Substance Abuse The Acquisition of Knowledge Attitudes and Skills 1269 Education and Training of Clinical [books.google.com]

1. Gould TJ. Addiction and Cognition. Addict Sci Clin Pract. 2010;5(2):4-14.
2. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Fifth Edition. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.
3. Porter RS, Kaplan JL. Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy. 19th Edition. Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. Whitehouse Station, N.J; 2011.
4. Hasin DS, O’Brien CP, Auriacombe M, et al. DSM-5 Criteria for Substance Use Disorders: Recommendations and Rationale. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(8):834-851.
5. Wagner FA, Anthony JC. From first drug use to drug dependence; developmental periods of risk for dependence upon marijuana, cocaine, and alcohol. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002;26(4):479-488.