Patients suffering from glaucoma may present with a wide range of symptoms. Most commonly, they present with periorbital pain and visual deficit [7]. Other symptoms include headache, redness of the eye and swelling, sighting of multicoloured halos and uveitis. Patients may sometimes complain solely of a severe headache, often accompanied with vomiting, which may be confused with intracranial hemorrhage. Primary infantile glaucoma may present as mostly bilateral but sometimes asymmetric involvement of eyes that are red, itchy and tearing. The infant is often unable to focus his or her eyes at one particular object clearly.

• Blurred Vision

  With angle-closure glaucoma, a rapid buildup of IOP may lead to blurred vision, severe eye pain, headache, abdominal pain, or nausea and vomiting. [emedicinehealth.com]

  A 6-year-old girl presented with blurred vision and was found to have elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) and glaucomatous optic disc damage in both eyes. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  (e.g. bimatoprost, latanoprost, travoprost) Blurred vision Burning/stinging/discomfort Dry eyes Eyelash growth Foreign body sensation Hyperemia Increased tearing Iris/skin discoloration Itching Photophobia Cold symptoms Exacerbation of asthma Facial [doi.org]

• Eye Pain

  Call your doctor right away if you have severe eye pain or a sudden loss of vision, especially loss of peripheral or side vision. [emedicinehealth.com]

  Acute angle-closure glaucoma signs and symptoms include: Severe eye pain Nausea and vomiting (accompanying the severe eye pain) Sudden onset of visual disturbance, often in low light Blurred vision Halos around lights Reddening of the eye Symptoms of [brightfocus.org]

  Symptoms of primary open-angle glaucoma include : Gradual loss of peripheral vision, usually in both eyes Tunnel vision Symptoms of acute angle-closure glaucoma include : Severe eye pain Nausea and vomiting (accompanying the severe eye pain) Sudden onset [singhealth.com.sg]

  During the early Common Era, eye pain, a glaucous hue, pupil irregularities, and absence of light perception indicated a poor prognosis with couching. Galen associated the glaucous hue with a large, anterior, or hard crystalline lens. [doi.org]

  Symptoms of closed angle glaucoma Eye pain, usually severe. Blurred vision. Eye pain is often accompanied by nausea and sometimes vomiting. Lights appear to have extra halo-like glows around them. Red eyes. [medicalnewstoday.com]

• Loss of Peripheral Vision

  Despite effective treatments, many people suffer some preventable loss of peripheral vision. One problem is that the disease too often goes undetected. [web.archive.org]

  The damage caused is a loss of peripheral vision(side vision) and if untreated can cause complete visual loss. 40% of the optic nerve can be damaged before you notice any loss of vision. It is the second biggest cause of blindness. [kilcullenoptician.com]

  As open-angle glaucoma progresses, symptoms may include loss of peripheral vision and difficulty adjusting to low light. Risk factors for glaucoma Everyone is at risk of developing glaucoma, but some people have a higher risk. [betterhealth.vic.gov.au]

  Symptoms of open-angle glaucoma are: Gradual loss of peripheral vision, usually in both eyes Tunnel vision in the advanced stages See how the progression of glaucoma may affect your vision. [brightfocus.org]

• Photophobia

  A 55-year-old female was referred for a second opinion regarding her bilateral ocular pain, photophobia, and ocular hypertension. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] of medical glaucoma treatments Drug class Ocular adverse events Systemic adverse events Alpha‐agonists (e.g. apraclonidine, brimonidine) Allergic reactions Blurred vision Burning/stinging/discomfort Follicular conjunctival response Hyperemia Itching Photophobia [doi.org]

  Bright lights might bother your eyes (you’ll hear the doctor call this light sensitivity or photophobia). Eye injuries like corneal edema, bleeding, or retinal detachment can hide glaucoma symptoms. [webmd.com]

  Symptoms may include: excessive tearing light sensitivity (photophobia) closure of one or both eyes in the light cloudy, enlarged cornea (large eye) one eye may be larger than the other vision loss If the eye pressure increases rapidly, there may be pain [stanfordchildrens.org]

• Scotoma

  […] steps, altitudinal scotomas, focal defects e.g. paracentral scotomas (2) optic disc changes - localised or generalised thinning of the neuroretinal rim, enlargement of the optic cup and increased cup to disc ratio (1) nerve fiber layer defects (3) Although [gpnotebook.co.uk]

  Some studies also indicate that poor blood flow within the eye is associated with blind spots (scotomas) that develop within the visual field, similar to those that occur in glaucoma.* An intriguing study reported in August 2007 indicates a potential [allaboutvision.com]

  A disc haemoorrhage may indicate a scotoma (glaucoma damage). Eye 18 Draw a graph of your vision This graph represents the reduction of visual field (tested with the Humphrey visual field machine) over the years. [goodhopeeyeclinic.org.uk]

  Peripheral vision (1960 —) appeared in translations 51 of his term peripherische Sehen. 52 Blind spot (1870 — ) and scotoma (1880 — ) entered common parlance. [oculistmd.wordpress.com]

• Headache

  Other symptoms include headache, redness of the eye and swelling, sighting of multicoloured halos and uveitis. [symptoma.com]

  With angle-closure glaucoma, a rapid buildup of IOP may lead to blurred vision, severe eye pain, headache, abdominal pain, or nausea and vomiting. [emedicinehealth.com]

  […] variety of symptoms, depending upon type and severity, such as excavation of the optic disk, hardness of the eyeball, corneal anesthesia, reduced visual acuity, seeing of colored halos around lights, disturbed dark adaptation, visual field defects, and headaches [icd9data.com]

  She had no symptoms other than occasional, mild headaches and had no findings to suggest clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) or MS; additionally, her cerebrospinal fluid analysis was unremarkable. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  They can also feel nauseous, with headaches and vomiting. This is an emergency and you should seek treatment straight away so you don’t lose vision. Most people with glaucoma have few to no symptoms until their eyesight is damaged. [healthdirect.gov.au]

• Mydriasis

  In older cases the pupil will dilate and this is called mydriasis. [doi.org]

  Angle closure, with palpable hardness of the eye, mydriasis, and anterior prominence of the lens, was described in greater detail in the 18th and 19th centuries. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] renal failure Mannitol 0.5–2.0 g/kg body weight IV over 30–45 min (may repeat 8–12 h later) Alpha- 2 -selective adrenergic agonists (topical) Apraclonidine 1 drop bid–tid Decrease aqueous production; may increase uveoscleral aqueous outflow; may cause mydriasis [merckmanuals.com]

  0.5–2.0 g/kg body weight IV over 30–45 minutes (may repeat 8–12 hours later) Alpha-2-selective adrenergic agonists (topical) Apraclonidine 1 drop two to three times a day Decrease aqueous production; may increase uveoscleral aqueous outflow; may cause mydriasis [msdmanuals.com]

  1550-1612). 8 Hunton discussed both amaurosis (1810 – ), a medical term implying poor vision, and amblyopia (1860—), which often implied a lesser visual impairment (Figure 1). 9 Hunton also discussed couching [1570-], strabismus, chemosis (1870 – ), mydriasis [oculistmd.wordpress.com]

Laboratory tests

• Complete blood count
• Erythrocyte sedimentation rate
• Micro-hemagglutination-Troponema pallidum (serology for syphilis)
• Tonometry

Imaging 

No specific imaging studies are available for the diagnosis of glaucoma. A CT scan may be conducted to exclude CNS involvement.

Test results

On the basis of history and physical examination, along with supportive evidence from laboratory tests results, a diagnosis can be made and treatment should be immediately begun.

Medication

Medications are used to primarily reduce the IOP with causing minimal adverse effects. Drugs that are commonly used include non selective beta adrenergic blockers like levobunolol, timolol and carteolol, selective beta 1 antagonists like betaxolol and metipranolol, and Alpha-2 adrenergic agonists like brimonidine. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors like dorzolamide and acetozolamide as well as prostaglandin analogs like latanoprost and tafluprost are also used. Diuretics, such as mannitol and isosorbide dinitrate may also be necessary in cases with very high IOP.

Surgery

• Open-angle glaucoma

When a patient is on maximum tolerated medical therapy (MTMT) but still in worsening condition, surgery is indicated. Commonly used procedures include Argon laser trabeculoplasty (ALT) and selective laser trabeculoplasty (SLT). ALT has a higher rate of reoccurrence of symptoms than SLT.

If ALT or SLT has failed, trabeculectomy may be performed. The worst complication of this procedure includes loss of vision. Attendant risk factors such as split fixation on visual fields prior to surgery, preoperative number of quadrants with split fixation, and postoperative choroidal effusions with eventual resolution are possible [8]. If repeated trabeculectomy fails, a drainage shunt may be placed to help relieve pressure. If all else fails, the patient may have to undergo ciliary body ablation to treat the disease. The ciliary body epithelium can be destroyed by cyclocryotherapy, diathermy, ultrasound, transscleral Nd:YAG or diode laser (known as cyclophotocoagulation), or a newer endoscopic laser [9].

• Closed-angle glaucoma

If conservative therapy fails, a corneal indentation (CI) may be performed. It provides a temporary relief from raised IOP. The definitive treatment of closed-angle glaucoma is Argon laser peripheral iridoplasty (ALPI) along with anterior chamber paracentesis (ACP). An alternative procedure is lens replacement. The exact role of this procedure is unclear but it offers a therapeutic advantage for individuals with coexisting cataracts [10].

Glaucoma is a progressive, chronic condition. It may begin with mild, reversible symptoms like headache and redness of the eyes but may progress to lasting, irreversible ocular damage. Peripheral vision loss occurs first, but if glaucoma is untreated, central vision loss and complete blindness can occur [6].

Glaucoma is a collective term used for conditions that lead to an increased intraocular pressure (IOP) resulting in visual deficits. Open-angle glaucoma is primarily due to conditions and diseases that result in a high IOP. These include hypertension, vascular defects, renal disease and diabetes. Immune mediated nerve damage, excessive production of retinal glutamate and oxidative stress may also contribute. Some people are genetically predisposed to this condition.
Acute closed-angle glaucoma can be due to narrow anterior chamber, thin ciliary body, thin iiris, short axial length of the eyeball, lens swelling and narrow anterior chamber angle.
Other factors such as blood supply, nerve metabolism, and extracellular matrix likely play a role in the progressive optic neuropathy of glaucoma [2].

Incidence

Glaucoma is a common condition and it is the 2nd most common cause of blindness worldwide (the 1st is cataracts). Exact incidence varies in accordance with the type of glaucoma.

Age

Peaks according to age depend upon the type of glaucoma. The onset of signs and symptoms of infantile glaucoma occurs at birth in 40 percent of affected patients and before one year of age in 86 percent [3]. Peak incidence of closed-angle glaucoma is in the 6th and 7th decade of life. In primary open-angle glaucoma, incidence is highest in the 4th decade and above, but it may also occur in younger patients.

Sex

Acute close-angle glaucoma is more common in females while primary open-angle glaucoma has an unclear sex predilection.

Discussed below is the pathogenesis of 3 common types of glaucoma:

Open-angle glaucoma

In open-angle glaucoma, optic nerve damage results in a progressive loss of retinal ganglion cell axons, which is manifested initially as visual field loss and, ultimately, irreversible blindness if left untreated [4]. Increased intraocular pressure causes the axons of the optic nerve, where they exit the eyeball at the optic disc, to become compressed. Studies reveal that it is this compression that blocks axonal flow of cytoplasm from the neuronal somas (cell bodies) of the retina into the optic nerve fibres that lead to the brain. As a result, optic fibres start to gradually die out due to lack of nutrients. Another pathway which may add to this neuronal damage or may occur alone is compression of the retinal artery which enters the eyeball at the optic disc. In this case too, the nutrient supply to the neurons is decreased and eventually completely cut off which leads to blindness.

Closed-angle glaucoma

The anterior chamber angle provides a pathway for the aqueous humor to drain. If this angle is narrowed or closed off, the humor is unable to drain out and IOP starts to rise. In acute episodes of closed-angle glaucoma, pressures are often 30 mm Hg or higher [5].

Infantile glaucoma

It may be present at birth, called congenital glaucoma, or it may develop in the first few years of life, called infantile glaucoma. It is a rare autosomal-recessive condition but in some patients, there are multifactorial causes of disease development.

Controlling predisposing factors such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus and taking particular care in case of renal disease may somewhat help in preventing occurrence of glaucoma.

Glaucoma is defined as an optic neuropathy involving a characteristic atrophy of the optic nerve head, often accompanied by typical visual field defects [1]. Glaucoma is a disease of the eye in which the intraocular pressure becomes very high, sometimes as much as 60-70mm Hg during acute attacks. Intraocular pressure greater than 25-30mm Hg, if maintained for a long period is enough to cause blindness, whereas extremely high pressures may cause blindness within a few hours or days. Indeed, glaucoma is one of the most common causes of blindness worldwide.

Definition

Glaucoma is a term used to define conditions and diseases that result in increased fluid (aqueous humor) in the eye which leads to raised intraocular pressure.

Cause

It may be present from birth due to family inheritance or it may develop later on in life due to old age, vascular compromise, hypertension, small eyeball size, trauma, etc. 

Signs and symptoms

Common symptoms include pain around the eyeballs and headache, redness and swelling of eyes and disturbed vision. There may also be nausea, vomiting, double vision and dizziness. 

Treatment

Initial treatment is conservative, with oral medications and eye drops. If after optimum medical treatment symptoms are not alleviated, surgery is indicated. 

1. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Primary angle closure, preferred practice pattern. American Academy of Ophthalmology, San Francisco 2005. 
2. Kwon YH, Fingert JH, Kuehn MH, Alward WL. Primary open-angle glaucoma. N Engl J Med 2009; 360:1113. 
3. Yanoff M, Fine BS. Glaucoma. In: Ocular Pathology, 2nd ed, JB Lippincott, Philadelphia 1982. p.74.
4. Weinreb RN, Khaw PT. Primary open-angle glaucoma. Lancet 2004; 363:1711. 
5. Pokhrel PK, Loftus SA. Ocular emergencies. Am Fam Physician 2007; 76:829.
6. Kipp MA. Childhood glaucoma. Pediatr Clin North Am 2003; 50:89.
7. Rahim SA, Sahlas DJ, Shadowitz S. Blinded by pressure and pain. Lancet. Jun 25-Jul 1 2005;365(9478):2244. 
8. Francis BA, Hong B, Winarko J, et al. Vision loss and recovery after trabeculectomy: risk and associated risk factors. Arch Ophthalmol. Aug 2011;129(8):1011-7 
9. Allen RC, Netland PA, eds. Glaucoma Medical Therapy: Principles and Management. American Academy of Ophthalmology; 1999.
10. Foster PJ, Buhrmann R, Quigley HA, Johnson GJ. The definition and classification of glaucoma in prevalence surveys. Br J Ophthalmol. Feb 2002;86(2):238-42.