Hemolytic uremic syndrome usually begins with diarrhea and vomiting that contains blood. In addition, to these the following signs and symptoms are also present:

• Stools contain blood
• Fever
• Lethargy
• Passing out blood in urine or very less urinary output
• Weakness 
• Irritability
• Confusion
• Pain in the abdomen
• Development of swelling in the arms, feet and face
• Pallor
• Jaundice
• Bruising

In the later stages, affected individuals may also experience seizures, though this is very rare.

• Easy Bruising

  A week later, he presents to the ER with jaundice, abdominal pain, and easy bruising. Lab results come back with low platelet count, anemia, and increased creatinine. A peripheral blood shows schistocytes. He is started on IV hydration. [step2.medbullets.com]

• Anemia

  In addition to the usual signs of anemia, the patient may also exhibit jaundice. hemolytic component a degree of extravascular hemolysis in association with other types of anemia. hemolytic disease of the newborn see alloimmune hemolytic anemia of the [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  It is characterized by hemolytic anemia (anemia, hemolytic); thrombocytopenia; and acute renal failure. [icd10data.com]

  It is characterized by hemolytic anemia (anemia, hemolytic); thrombocytopenia; and acute renal failure Use Additional ICD-9-CM Volume 2 Index entries containing back-references to 283.11 : [icd9data.com]

  Typical management of STEC-HUS patients relies on supportive care of electrolyte and water imbalance, anemia, hypertension and renal failure. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Fever

  Fever, tachycardia, a rising white blood cell count, and abdominal pain out of proportion to examination are key findings for which physicians should be vigilant. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms of E. coli gastroenteritis are: Diarrhea (usually bloody) Fever Stomach pain Vomiting Having diarrhea does not mean you have HUS. There are many causes of bloody diarrhea. [my.clevelandclinic.org]

  Symptoms Symptoms of HUS include bloody diarrhea, vomiting, anemia, blood in urine, decreased urinary output, fatigue, lethargy, confusion, pallor, irritability, edema and fever. [symptoma.com]

• Fatigue

  Symptoms Symptoms of HUS include bloody diarrhea, vomiting, anemia, blood in urine, decreased urinary output, fatigue, lethargy, confusion, pallor, irritability, edema and fever. [symptoma.com]

  Symptoms Signs and symptoms of HUS can include: Bloody diarrhea Decreased urination or blood in the urine Abdominal pain, vomiting and occasionally fever Pallor Small, unexplained bruises or bleeding from the nose and mouth Fatigue and irritability Confusion [mayoclinic.org]

  […] meat unwashed fruits/vegetables animals at petting zoos Risk factors use of antimotility agents in EHEC diarrhea use of antibiotics in EHEC diarrhea Presentation Symptoms prodromal gastrointestinal illness abdominal pain bloody diarrhea nausea vomiting fatigue [step2.medbullets.com]

  Symptoms of HUS include extreme irritability and fatigue, paleness of the skin, and a decrease in urine output. [ok.gov]

  Transfusions can relieve symptoms associated with low RBC counts, such as shortness of breath and extreme fatigue. [healthline.com]

• HELLP Syndrome

  A pregnancy complicated by typical hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) and hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets (HELLP) syndrome is reported. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  The question of whether HELLP syndrome is a TMA is relevant because if the link between HELLP syndrome and complement dysregulation is confirmed, complement inhibition may represent a treatment for severe HELLP syndrome. [doi.org]

  HELLP Syndrome. Lab Med 1997; 28:500-502. Kwaan HC, Ganguly P. Introduction: Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura and the hemolytic uremic syndrome. Sem. In Hematol. 34(2) April 1992, 81-82. Kwaan, Hau C. Soff, Gerald A. [path.upmc.edu]

  At a Glance Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) is a clinical syndrome characterized by the triad of thrombocytopenia, microangiopathic hemolytic anemia (MAHA) and acute renal failure. [clinicaladvisor.com]

  HELLP syndrome (= H aemolysis, E levated L iver enzymes, Low P latelet count). An autosomal dominant form of HUS exists with abnormality of the ADAMTS13 gene which encodes the von Willebrand factor. [patient.info]

• Pallor

  Symptoms Symptoms of HUS include bloody diarrhea, vomiting, anemia, blood in urine, decreased urinary output, fatigue, lethargy, confusion, pallor, irritability, edema and fever. [symptoma.com]

  However, eight days post delivery, the patient developed severe nausea and vomiting followed by hematuria, spontaneous bruising, marked pallor, icteric sclera, and lethargy. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] factors use of antimotility agents in EHEC diarrhea use of antibiotics in EHEC diarrhea Presentation Symptoms prodromal gastrointestinal illness abdominal pain bloody diarrhea nausea vomiting fatigue (anemia) oliguria/anuria (renal failure) Physical exam pallor [step2.medbullets.com]

   LATER SYMPTOMS: • Bruising • Decreased consciousness • Low urine output • No urine output • Pallor • Seizures -- rare • Skin rash that looks like fine red spots (petechiae) • Yellow skin (jaundice) 10. [slideshare.net]

• Severe Clinical Course

  Moreover, a shorter period between the onset of diarrhea and a diagnosis of D + HUS indicated a more severe clinical course or long-term sequelae, and it should be considered as a risk factor for poor prognosis. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Diarrhea

  Symptoms of E. coli gastroenteritis are: Diarrhea (usually bloody) Fever Stomach pain Vomiting Having diarrhea does not mean you have HUS. There are many causes of bloody diarrhea. [my.clevelandclinic.org]

  Hemolytic uremic syndrome usually begins with diarrhea and vomiting that contains blood. [symptoma.com]

  O157:H7 causes severe gastroenteritis, which can include abdominal pain, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea. For most children, the vomiting and diarrhea stop within two to three days. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  Diarrhea-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) is characterized by acute kidney injury with microangiopathic hemolytic anemia and thrombocytopenia with a diarrhea prodrome, typically caused by Shiga-like toxin-producing Escherichia coli. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Vomiting

  Hemolytic uremic syndrome usually begins with diarrhea and vomiting that contains blood. [symptoma.com]

  O157:H7 causes severe gastroenteritis, which can include abdominal pain, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea. For most children, the vomiting and diarrhea stop within two to three days. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  However, eight days post delivery, the patient developed severe nausea and vomiting followed by hematuria, spontaneous bruising, marked pallor, icteric sclera, and lethargy. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  His mother notes that he has had several episodes of diarrhea for the past week, with vomiting over the past 3 days. The child is on summer vacation and attended a 4th of July barbecue 1 week ago. [medbullets.com]

  Symptoms of E. coli gastroenteritis are: Diarrhea (usually bloody) Fever Stomach pain Vomiting Having diarrhea does not mean you have HUS. There are many causes of bloody diarrhea. [my.clevelandclinic.org]

• Abdominal Pain

  Fever, tachycardia, a rising white blood cell count, and abdominal pain out of proportion to examination are key findings for which physicians should be vigilant. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Usually, there is an interval of 2-12 days between the ingestion of contaminated food and the first day of diarrhea and abdominal pain. After 1-3 days the diarrhea becomes bloody (~90%). Fever is usually absent. [radiopaedia.org]

  Review Topic QID: 104673 2 Fragmented red blood cells M2 Select Answer to see Preferred Response PREFERRED RESPONSE 2 (M2.HE.4673) A 6-year-old male presents to the emergency room complaining of severe abdominal pain. [medbullets.com]

• Nausea

  However, eight days post delivery, the patient developed severe nausea and vomiting followed by hematuria, spontaneous bruising, marked pallor, icteric sclera, and lethargy. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Additional symptoms may include nausea and vomiting, without a fever, or with only a mild fever. After about five to ten days, HUS can develop, which is characterized by paleness, irritability, and fatigue, as well as reduced urine production. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  Adverse Reactions The most frequently reported adverse reactions in the PNH randomized trial (≥10% overall and greater than placebo) are: headache, nasopharyngitis, back pain, and nausea. [alexion.com]

  Nausea and vomiting is present in approximately half of the patients. Most patients recover in 7-10 days, but some (6%) go on to have HUS. This is most likely to happen in children and the elderly. [medicinenet.com]

  […] undercooked meat unwashed fruits/vegetables animals at petting zoos Risk factors use of antimotility agents in EHEC diarrhea use of antibiotics in EHEC diarrhea Presentation Symptoms prodromal gastrointestinal illness abdominal pain bloody diarrhea nausea [step2.medbullets.com]

• Hemorrhagic Diarrhea

  As many as 82% of the household contacts of a child with IStx- E coli HUS (many of whom have hemorrhagic diarrhea) have Stx bound to their PMNs. Despite this binding, such individuals often do not have evidence of renal dysfunction. [emedicine.medscape.com]

  Pathogen and disease overview EHEC was first described in 1983 and has been associated with 2 outbreaks of hemorrhagic diarrhea in 2 cities in the USA; the commonality between these 2 outbreaks was poorly cooked hamburger meat in fast food restaurants [doi.org]

• Jaundice

  A week later, he presents to the ER with jaundice, abdominal pain, and easy bruising. Lab results come back with low platelet count, anemia, and increased creatinine. A peripheral blood shows schistocytes. He is started on IV hydration. [step2.medbullets.com]

  […] the following signs and symptoms are also present: Stools contain blood Fever Lethargy Passing out blood in urine or very less urinary output Weakness Irritability Confusion Pain in the abdomen Development of swelling in the arms, feet and face Pallor Jaundice [symptoma.com]

   LATER SYMPTOMS: • Bruising • Decreased consciousness • Low urine output • No urine output • Pallor • Seizures -- rare • Skin rash that looks like fine red spots (petechiae) • Yellow skin (jaundice) 10. [slideshare.net]

  In addition to the usual signs of anemia, the patient may also exhibit jaundice. hemolytic component a degree of extravascular hemolysis in association with other types of anemia. hemolytic disease of the newborn see alloimmune hemolytic anemia of the [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

• Hypertension

  Overhydration, hypertension, anemia, or dyselectrolytemias sometimes cause cardiovascular impairment in childhood hemolytic-uremic syndrome. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] of Miami, Miami, FL; and 2 Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY. [journals.lww.com]

  Long-term complications could include hypertension, urinary abnormalities, renal failure and death. Hemolytic-uremic syndrome can also cause damage to other organs, including the pancreas, liver, brain and heart. E. [youhavealawyer.com]

  Current Opinion in Nephrology and Hypertension. 19(3):242–247, MAY 2010 DOI: 10.1097/MNH.0b013e3283378f25, PMID: 20186056 Issn Print: 1062-4821 Publication Date: 2010/05/01 Checking for direct PDF access through Ovid Abstract In the following study new [doi.org]

• Tachycardia

  Fever, tachycardia, a rising white blood cell count, and abdominal pain out of proportion to examination are key findings for which physicians should be vigilant. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  At that time, she exhibited moderate dehydration, pallor, drowsiness, and a generalized seizure of 10 to 15 min duration, tachycardia, tender and tense abdominal wall, and a history of oligoanuria for the last 48 h. Blood pressure was 128/67 mm Hg. [doi.org]

  Blood cultures were drawn and an antibiotic was given based on a body temperature of 38.9°C and tachycardia. The patient was started at 4 g piperacillin-tazobactam 3 times per day intravenously (i.v.). The cultures did not show any bacterial growth. [bmcresnotes.biomedcentral.com]

  His heart has a regular rhythm with tachycardia and a grade II/VI vibratory systolic ejection murmur at the left sternal border without radiation. No heaves, lifts, thrills, rubs, or gallops are present. His lungs are clear with good aeration. [hawaii.edu]

  The remaining patients from both groups all experienced minor complications, including nausea, hypotension, tachycardia, tachypnoea, dizziness, chills or oedema. [dx.doi.org]

• Petechiae

  Physical examination is significant for petechiae on his legs and diffuse abdominal tenderness to palpation. Lab-work shows BUN 72 mg/dL, creatinine 8.1 mg/dL, and platelet count < 10,000. PT and PTT are within normal limits. [medbullets.com]

  […] diarrhea use of antibiotics in EHEC diarrhea Presentation Symptoms prodromal gastrointestinal illness abdominal pain bloody diarrhea nausea vomiting fatigue (anemia) oliguria/anuria (renal failure) Physical exam pallor (anemia) jaundice (hemolysis) petechiae [step2.medbullets.com]

   LATER SYMPTOMS: • Bruising • Decreased consciousness • Low urine output • No urine output • Pallor • Seizures -- rare • Skin rash that looks like fine red spots (petechiae) • Yellow skin (jaundice) 10. [slideshare.net]

  In addition, petechia, purpura, and/or active bleeding are uncommon features of HUS, despite the significant low platelet count. [clinicaladvisor.com]

  He has no nasal flaring or palatal petechiae. His oral mucosa is moist and his tongue is pale. His neck is supple without adenopathy. [hawaii.edu]

• Kidney Failure

  Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) is a disease that causes sudden kidney failure due to destruction of the red blood cells (RBCs). The kidney failure is a temporary condition and functioning of the kidneys gets normal after rigorous treatment regime. [symptoma.com]

  If the E-coli toxins are absorbed into the blood stream, it can cause more serious complications, including sudden kidney failure. [youhavealawyer.com]

  […] on, 75 have been hospitalized and 20 have developed hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), the form of kidney failure that can be fatal. — David J. [merriam-webster.com]

  However, between 10 and 30 percent of the survivors will have kidney damage that will lead to kidney failure immediately or within several years. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  It is the most common cause of acute kidney failure in children. Several large outbreaks have been linked to undercooked hamburger meat contaminated with E coli. [nlm.nih.gov]

• Oliguria

  CONCLUSIONS: The age of onset younger than 2 years, oliguria/anuria more than 1 week, and associated with extrarenal complications were predictive factors of poor prognosis. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  /vegetables animals at petting zoos Risk factors use of antimotility agents in EHEC diarrhea use of antibiotics in EHEC diarrhea Presentation Symptoms prodromal gastrointestinal illness abdominal pain bloody diarrhea nausea vomiting fatigue (anemia) oliguria [step2.medbullets.com]

• Dark Urine

  Two days later, he developed increasing fatigue, and noted dark urine and jaundiced skin and sclerae. There was no history of recent travel or diarrhoea. His dietary history was unremarkable. [doi.org]

  You have bloody or dark urine or bowel movements. You have questions or concerns about your condition or care. When should I seek immediate care or call 911? You are urinating less than usual or not at all. You have diarrhea and vomiting. [drugs.com]

The following diagnostic procedures would be done to confirm HUS:

• Blood tests are carried out to study platelet count, level of creatinine and RBC count. Low levels of RBCs, low platelet count and elevated levels of creatinine all point towards onset of HUS.
• Peripheral blood smear examination by microscopy will reveal schistocytes as a marker of hemolysis among red blood cells in HUS [8].
• Stool sample will be analyzed to check for presence of bacteria and further analysis would also be done to determine the pathogenic strain.
• Urine analysis would determine the presence of blood and protein in urine.
• A urine protein test is also a necessity to evaluate the levels of protein excreted in urine.

In addition to the above mentioned tests, other tests include a kidney biopsy and blood clotting tests for differential diagnosis.

• Coombs Negative Hemolytic Anemia

  BACKGROUND: Hemolytic uremic syndrome is characterized by acute renal failure, thrombocytopenia, and Coombs-negative hemolytic anemia. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) is a clinical triad of Coombs-negative microangiopathic hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, and acute renal failure ( 1 ). [doi.org]

  Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) is a disease of nonimmune (Coombs negative) hemolytic anemia, low platelet count, and renal impairment ( 1 ). [jasn.asnjournals.org]

• Burr Cell

  Laboratory Criteria for Diagnosis The following are both present at some time during the illness: Anemia (acute onset) with microangiopathic changes (i.e., schistocytes, burr cells, or helmet cells) on peripheral blood smear, AND Renal injury (acute onset [wwwn.cdc.gov]

  Title Other Names: HUS; Acute renal failure, thrombocytopenia, and microangiopathic hemolytic anemia associated with distorted erythrocytes ('burr cells') Categories: Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) is a disorder that usually occurs when an E. coli bacterial [rarediseases.info.nih.gov]

  cells, renal tubular epithelial cells, monocytes, and monocytes-derived cell lines in addition to the endothelial cell. 1 Most strains of E. coli are harmless; however, enterohemorrhagic E. coli can release Shiga toxins that attach to and damage the [aafp.org]

• Decreased Platelet Count

  platelet count Elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine due to decreased kidney function Blood and protein in urine Presence of shiga toxin-producing E. coli in stool samples Treatment for hemolytic uremic syndrome Due to its severity, HUS is [davita.com]

  This leads to platelet activation, endothelial cell damage, and white blood cell activation, leading to systemic TMA, which manifests as decreased platelet count, hemolysis, damage to multiple organs, and ultimately, death. [en.wikipedia.org]

• Haptoglobin Decreased

  Early signs of systemic complement-mediated TMA include thrombocytopenia (platelet count below 150,000 or a decrease from baseline of at least 25%) and evidence of microangiopathic hemolysis, which is characterized by elevated LDH levels, decreased haptoglobin [en.wikipedia.org]

• Creatinine Increased

  Elevated creatinine High blood creatinine level Increased creatinine Increased serum creatinine [ more ] 0003259 Fever 0001945 Hemiparesis Weakness of one side of body 0001269 Hemolytic-uremic syndrome 0005575 Hyperlipidemia Elevated lipids in blood [rarediseases.info.nih.gov]

• Escherichia Coli O157:H7

  Relative Risk of the Hemolytic–Uremic Syndrome among Children Infected with Escherichia coli O157:H7. [dx.doi.org]

  Hemolytic uremic syndrome associated with Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157:H7 has been widely known as a common cause of acute renal failure in children. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Clade 8 and Clade 6 Strains of Escherichia coli O157:H7 from Cattle in Argentina have Hypervirulent-Like Phenotypes. [journalhealthsciences.com]

  Effect of early oral fluoroquinolones in hemorrhagic colitis due to Escherichia coli O157:H7. Pediatr Int. 1999; 41(2) 228-232 66 Mølbak K, Mead P S, Griffin P M. Antimicrobial therapy in patients with Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection. [oadoi.org]

• Colitis

  Colitis Colitis Colitis Pancreatic colitis × [jaoa.org]

  DIFFERNTIAL DIAGNOSIS • Acute abdomen • Acute gastroenteritis • Appendicitis • Colitis • Disseminated intravascular coagulation • Inflammatory bowel disease • Lupus • Thrombotic thrombocytopenia 17. [slideshare.net]

  The most common form of the syndrome (D+ HUS) occurs in healthy young children (>6 mo to <5 y of age) and is preceded by watery diarrhea that can evolve to hemorrhagic colitis. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Cause in children is typically hemorrhagic colitis resulting from Shiga toxin–producing bacteria. [msdmanuals.com]

Patients with HUS require immediate hospitalization. The following are the treatment methods administered to stabilize the condition of the patient:

• Transfusions of red blood cells and platelets.
• Plasma exchange [9]
• Dialysis is done as there is acute renal failure. It is a temporary treatment method which is carried out until the kidney restores its normal functioning. If there is severe damage to the kidney or signs of chronic failure are noticed then kidney transplant may be necessary.
• Patient is given medications such as corticosteroids.
• Antibiotics may only be used when HUS patients are undergoing septicemia [10].

The prognosis of HUS is very favorable when appropriate treatment regime is initiated. About 70 – 80% children completely recover after treatment. Recovery period in children is faster as compared to adults.

Complications

The possible complications of HUS include the following:

• Hemolytic anemia due to destruction of red blood cells.
• High blood pressure
• Kidney failure
• Uremia
• Thrombocytopenia characterized by extremely low platelet counts.
• Problems of the nervous system
• Blood clotting problems
• Stroke
• Coma

Infections caused by E. coli O157:H7 lead to development of HUS [2]. Such a strain of E. coli causes gastrointestinal infections which precipitate by diarrhea and vomiting in affected children. In addition, other potent strains of E. coli like O111:H8, O103:H2, and O104:H4 have also been linked to HUS [3]. In adults, HUS is known to be triggered by the following factors:

• Medications like quinine [4], chemotherapy drugs, anti-platelet medications and immunosuppresants can cause HUS.
• Pregnant women are more prone to develop HUS [5].
• Individuals with infectious diseases such as H1N1 influenza A virus and HIV/AIDS are likely to suffer from HUS [6]. 
• Heredity can also play foul in causation of specific type of HUS known as atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome. 

Incidence of HUS peaks during the summer season and majorly affects children. It has been estimated that in United States, for children below 5 years of age, the prevalence of HUS per year has been recorded to be 6.1 cases per 100,000 population.

Hemolytic uremic syndrome is classified under two categories on the basis of its causative agent: Typical HUS and atypical HUS. In the former category, the development of the disease occurs due to toxins produced by E. coli O157:H7 and in the atypical variety, infections are not the cause. It can occur either due to genetic defect or can be sporadic in nature.

Once the pathogenic bacteria E. coli O157:H7 gains entry into the body, it produces Shiga toxin which binds with the epithelial cells lining the gut. Following this event, series of unfavorable reactions are triggered that cause destruction of red blood cells. The destroyed red blood cells then clog the filtering system in the kidney causing acute renal failure. This may further be aggravated by the loss of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in autoimmune diseases resulting to renal microvascular angiopathies [7].

Food borne cases of HUS can be prevented by following certain simple steps to avoid falling prey to these illnesses. They include:

• Appropriately cook raw meat and avoid consumption of such high risk foods on open food stalls.
• Raw food should not share the same platform with cooked food. Keep them separately.
• Hands should be thoroughly washed prior to cooking and eating.
• It is also necessary to wash and disinfect all raw produce before cooking them.
• Sanitization of the cooking surface prior to cooking should be done.

Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) is a disease that causes sudden kidney failure due to destruction of the red blood cells (RBCs). The kidney failure is a temporary condition and functioning of the kidneys gets normal after rigorous treatment regime.

HUS remains to be the most common cause of acute renal failure in children [1]. Children who contract Escherichia coli (E. coli) infection fall prey to HUS. The disease usually begins with bloody diarrhea and finally causes destruction of the red blood cells that eventually block the filtering system. Such a condition causes sudden kidney failure. With prompt diagnosis and appropriate treatment regime, majority of the children completely recover from the condition.

Definition

Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) is characterized by acute renal failure due to destruction of red blood cells usually as a result of severe infection due to E coli O157:H7. Such a condition commonly strikes the children; however it can also affect adults. Contaminated raw produce, water and uncooked meat products are the source of infections.

Cause

HUS occurs due to gastrointestinal infection caused by pathogenic strain of E. coli. In addition, other causes include certain medications, infectious diseases that affect the immune system and heredity factors.

Symptoms

Symptoms of HUS include bloody diarrhea, vomiting, anemia, blood in urine, decreased urinary output, fatigue, lethargy, confusion, pallor, irritability, edema and fever.

Diagnosis

Blood tests to detect levels of RBCs, platelets and total blood count forms the preliminary diagnostic procedures for detecting HUS. Urine analysis and stool culture are some of the additional tests that are done for confirming the disease condition.

Treatment

Patient is hospitalized immediately to ease the signs and symptoms. Acute renal failure is treated through temporary dialysis and the patient is also given transfusions of platelets and red blood cells.

1. Siegler RL. Management of hemolytic-uremic syndrome. J Pediatr. Jun 1988; 112(6):1014-20.
2. Tarr PI, Gordon CA, Chandler WL. Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli and haemolytic uraemic syndrome. Lancet. Mar 19-25 2005; 365(9464):1073-86.
3. Frank C, Werber D, Cramer JP, et al. Epidemic profile of Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli O104:H4 outbreak in Germany. N Engl J Med. Nov 10 2011; 365(19):1771-80.
4. Kojouri K, Vesely SK, George JN. Quinine-associated thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura-hemolytic uremic syndrome: frequency, clinical features, and long-term outcomes. Ann Intern Med. Dec 18 2001; 135(12):1047-51.
5. Wang YQ, Wang J, Jiang YH, Ye RH, Zhao YY. A case of severe preeclampsia diagnosed as post-partum hemolytic uremic syndrome.Chin Med J (Engl). 2012; 125(6):1189-92 (ISSN: 0366-6999)
6. Rhee H, Song SH, Lee YJ, Choi HJ, Ahn JH. Pandemic H1N1 influenza A viral infection complicated by atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome and diffuse alveolar hemorrhage. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2011; 15(6):948-52 
7. Eremina V, Jefferson JA, Kowalewska J, et al. VEGF inhibition and renal thrombotic microangiopathy. N Engl J Med. Mar 13 2008; 358(11):1129-36.
8. Burns ER, Lou Y, Pathak A. Morphologic diagnosis of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Am J Hematol. Jan 2004; 75(1):18-21.
9. Lapeyraque AL, Wagner E, Phan V, et al. Efficacy of plasma therapy in atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome with complement factor H mutations. Pediatr Nephrol. Aug 2008; 23(8):1363-6.
10. McGannon CM, Fuller CA, Weiss AA. Different classes of antibiotics differentially influence Shiga toxin production. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. Sept 2010; 54(9):3790-3798.