The initial presentation of hypogonadism in men depends upon the age of onset. Prepubescent boys present with delayed secondary sex characteristics and puberty [16]. In men 20-50 years of age are often identified when undergoing evaluation for infertility and/or sexual dysfunction. Men over age 65 years are often diagnosed during evaluation for other health concerns [3].

Primary symptoms of hypogonadism include [11] [14]:

• Low testosterone 
• Sexual dysfunction: Reduced libido, erectile dysfunction
• Decreased muscle mass and strength
• Depression
• Decreased energy and increased fatigue
• Osteoporosis or low bone mass

Other symptoms that may suggest low testosterone [11] [14]:

• Delayed/absence of sexual development
• Decreased sperm count, infertility
• Gynaecomastia/breast discomfort
• Lack/loss of axillary, facial, and pubic hair
• Small or shrinking testes
• Poor concentration and memory
• Sleep disturbances, insomnia
• Increased body fat and body mass index
• Menopausal-type hot flushes

Testosterone deficiency alters metabolism and contributes to changes in body anthropometric features and body
composition [13] [14]. It is associated with decreased insulin sensitivity, central obesity, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, osteoporosis, muscle weakness and decreased strength, cognitive impairment, lethargy, and fatigue [2] [12]. These characteristics may explain, in part, the inter-relationship of hypogonadism with obesity, type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease [2] [14] [17].

Diagnosis of male post-pubescent hypogonadism is made by the presence of two or more symptoms and a low serum testosterone level [1]. Hypogonadism in men is often overlooked because symptoms are non-specific, often ignored, or attributed to other causes, including ageing [9].

• Infertility

  A similar classification has not yet been applied to the infertile population. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Martin Kathrins and Craig Niederberger, Diagnosis and treatment of infertility-related male hormonal dysfunction, Nature Reviews Urology, 10.1038/nrurol.2016.62, 13, 6, (309-323), (2016). [doi.org]

  In adult women, hypogonadism causes: amenorrhea infertility loss of libido vaginal dryness hot flashes Prolonged periods of hypogonadism can cause osteoporosis. [ccpd.ucsf.edu]

  In addition to male infertility, having low serum testosterone levels is associated with varicoceles and the need for varicocelectomy, according to new study findings. [renalandurologynews.com]

• Anemia

  Although hypogonadotropic hypogonadism is well known to be associated with reduced hematopoesis, it rarely causes anemia in athletes. This should be considered as a possible cause for anemia. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Some signs and symptoms of low testosterone, also called hypogonadism, include reduced sex drive and sense of vitality, erectile dysfunction, decreased energy, lower muscle mass and bone density, and anemia. [harvardprostateknowledge.org]

  The clinical features associated with true male hypogonadism are nonspecific and include impaired libido, erections, and fertility; reductions in lean muscle mass and bone density; loss of facial, axillary, and pubic hair; anemia; and changes in mood [jamanetwork.com]

  Men develop testicular suppression with decreased libido, impotence, decreased ejaculate volume, loss of body and facial hair, weakness, fatigue and often anemia. On testing, blood levels of testosterone are low and should be replaced. [pituitary.org]

• Weakness

  We herein analyzed mtDNA deletions using sub-cloning and Sanger sequencing of PCR products in a 31-year-old Japanese man with multiple symptoms, including PEO, muscle weakness, hearing loss, leukoencephalopathy and hypogonadism. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Men develop testicular suppression with decreased libido, impotence, decreased ejaculate volume, loss of body and facial hair, weakness, fatigue and often anemia. On testing, blood levels of testosterone are low and should be replaced. [pituitary.org]

  […] these symptoms—as well as others reported by men with low testosterone, such as depression, difficulty concentrating, irritability, and insomnia—are nonspecific and may be related to other medical conditions.12 Likewise, physical findings such as muscle weakness [mdedge.com]

• Short Stature

  Disease definition Moyamoya angiopathy - short stature - facial dysmorphism - hypergonadotropic hypogonadism is a very rare, hereditary, neurological, dysmorphic syndrome characterized by moyamoya disease, short stature of postnatal onset, and stereotyped [orpha.net]

  stature Kallmann syndrome: anosmia, absent breast development, uterus is present, syndactyly, cleft palate or lip Prader-Willi syndrome: muscular hypotonia, short stature, facial dysmorphia Gaucher's disease: hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, painful bone [amboss.com]

  They include numerous conditions such as dermatitis herpetiformis, anemia, dental enamel hypoplasia, recurrent oral aphthae, short stature, osteoporosis, arthritis, neurologic problems, unexplained elevation of transaminase levels, and female infertility [dx.doi.org]

  stature (in some cases) Adults: Loss of interest in sex (libido) in men Loss of menstrual periods (amenorrhea) in women Decreased energy and interest in activities Loss of muscle mass in men Weight gain Mood changes Infertility The health care provider [medlineplus.gov]

  Rapid weight gain continues into adulthood; stature remains short and may be caused by growth hormone deficiency. [msdmanuals.com]

• Malnutrition

  DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis with all men included the Malnutrition, Inflammation and Vascular Calcification cohort, which enrolled consecutive nondialyzed patients with CKD stages 3-5. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] cause decreased testicular function include tumours and cysts of the hypothalamus, nonsecreting and prolactin-secreting pituitary tumours, trauma, hemochromatosis (excess iron storage), infections, and nonendocrine disorders, such as chronic illness and malnutrition [britannica.com]

  CHRONIC LIVER DISEASE Regardless Of Etiology- primary In Mild To Moderate Secondary In Severe COPD Hypoxia Malnutrition Steroids 30. [slideshare.net]

  A reduction in the level of SHBG can result in low total serum testosterone levels in patients with obesity or type 2 diabetes (states of insulin resistance), and also in cachexia, malnutrition, advanced cirrhosis, acromegaly, hypothyroidism, and nephrotic [mdedge.com]

• Heart Failure

  failure, myocardial infarction or stroke within the last 6 months, or thrombophilia. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Prostate disease, hematocrit higher than 50 %, uncontrolled heart failure and severe obstructive sleep apnea are contraindications of a testosterone replacement therapy. [econtent.hogrefe.com]

  failure, or uncontrolled diabetes. [mdedge.com]

  It may lead to worsening of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), acceleration of pre-existing prostate cancer, and worsening of both sleep apnea and congestive heart failure. TRT should not be started without first attending to these conditions. [medicalnewstoday.com]

• Thrombosis

  Arşivi 50 (1), 37, 2015 92015QT and JT dispersion and cardiac performance in children with neonatal Bartter syndrome: a pilot study DO Hacihamdioglu, K Fidanci, A Kilic, F Gok, R Topaloglu Pediatric Nephrology 28 (10), 1969-1974, 2013 92013Cerebral vein thrombosis [scholar.google.com.tr]

  Treatment with testosterone can cause an increase in red blood cells (known as polycythaemia), which increases the risk of thrombosis. Regular blood tests should be carried out during treatment to check for an increase in red blood cells. [yourhormones.info]

  Baskurt OK, Meiselman HJ (2012) Iatrogenic hyperviscosity and thrombosis. Semin Thromb Hemost 38: 854–864. View Article Google Scholar 22. [doi.org]

  Antithrombotic therapy for atrial fibrillation: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb. 141 (2 suppl):e531S-75S. [emedicine.medscape.com]

• Vascular Disease

  DIABETES CARE References ↵ Kapoor D, Malkin CJ, Channer KS, Jones TH: Androgens, insulin resistance and vascular disease in men. [care.diabetesjournals.org]

  peripheral vascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, transient ischemic attack, renal disease, obesity, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, bronchitis, emphysema, alcohol-induced liver disease, alcohol dependence, and rheumatoid arthritis [doi.org]

  The elevations in hemoglobin can result in adverse outcomes, particularly in elderly due to increases in viscosity that can exacerbate vascular disease (coronary, cerebrovascular, or peripheral vascular circulation) [27, 193, 200–202]. [hindawi.com]

  […] low BMD Etiologies of Hypogonadism Causes of hypogonadism may be separated into diseases of the testis (primary), and diseases of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis (secondary). [clinicaladvisor.com]

  Risk of vascular disease in adults with diagnosed coeliac disease: a population-based study. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 20, 73–79 (2004). 129. Wolf-Maier, K. et al. [dx.doi.org]

• Prolapse

  Small Testis,Normal to Low Testosterone, FSH increase >LH,Modest Elevation of Estradiol,Severe Oligospermia to AzospermiaAssociated Conditions: COPD, Cancer of Breast, GermCell Tumors, Autoimmune Diseases, Diabetes Mellitus,Osteopenia, Mitral Valve Prolapse [slideshare.net]

• Fracture

  Health problems that may result from HH include: Delayed puberty Early menopause (in females) Infertility Low bone density and fractures later in life Low self-esteem due to late start of puberty (emotional support may be helpful) Sexual problems, such [medlineplus.gov]

  […] and include decreased energy, depressed mood, poor concentration and memory, sleep disturbance, mild normocytic normochromic anemia, reduced muscle bulk and strength, increased body fat, reduced libido, decreased erections, gynecomastia, low-trauma fractures [mdedge.com]

  Contraindications : Not recommended for men with sinus disease, mucosal inflammatory disorders, a history of nasal or sinus surgery, recent nasal fracture, or any nasal fracture leading to deformity of the nasal septum. [clinicaladvisor.com]

  Possible Complications Delayed puberty Early menopause (in females) Infertility Low bone density and fractures later in life Low self-esteem due to late start of puberty (emotional support may be helpful) Sexual problems such as low libido When to Contact [nicklauschildrens.org]

  Possible Complications Health problems that may result from HH include: Delayed puberty Early menopause (in females) Infertility Low bone density and fractures later in life Low self-esteem due to late start of puberty (emotional support may be helpful [pennmedicine.org]

• Ankylosis

  […] mucocutaneous rash, symmetrical anti-DNA, 30 IU/dl; ESR, 32 mm/h; and polyarthritis; 6 weeks B27 (-); skin biopsy compatible with APLS SLE; serum antiphospholipid + IgG 3 20 Klinefelter's syndrome; Lumbar pain, morning stiffness, ESR, 5 mm/h; B27 (+) Ankylosis [arthritis-research.biomedcentral.com]

• Loss of Libido

  In adult women, hypogonadism causes: amenorrhea infertility loss of libido vaginal dryness hot flashes Prolonged periods of hypogonadism can cause osteoporosis. [ccpd.ucsf.edu]

  A 55-year-old patient presented for erectile dysfunction, loss of libido and fatigue. The biochemical evaluation showed very high FSH serum levels in the presence of central hypogonadism. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Adult women with the condition may stop menstruating or develop infertility, loss of libido, vaginal dryness and hot flashes. Prolonged periods of hypogonadism can cause osteoporosis. [ucsfhealth.org]

  In the adult men, one can often observe fatigue, decrease in physical capacity, loss of libido and erectile dysfunction. At the physical examination, genitalia have always to be assessed in search of a testes/penis atrophy. [econtent.hogrefe.com]

• Ataxia

  In this study, we performed exome sequencing in a family presenting hypergonadotropic hypogonadism with neurological presentations of mental retardation, epilepsy, ataxia, and leukodystrophy. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Autoantibody targeting of brain and intestinal transglutaminase in gluten ataxia. Neurology 66, 373–377 (2006). 76. Boscolo, S. et al. Gluten ataxia: passive transfer in a mouse model. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1107, 319–328 (2007). 77. [dx.doi.org]

  They often exhibit uncoordinated muscle movements (cerebellar ataxia), or make involuntary movements automatically whenever they make purposeful movements (synkinesia), or have twitching eye movements (nystagmus). [testocreams.com]

  Somatic abnormality – cleft lip, cleft palate, short metacarpal bone, pes carvus, renal agenesis, urogenital tract defect Neurological abnormality – Uncoordinated eye movement, spatial attention, mental retard, sensoryneural deafness, seizure, cerebellar ataxia [slideshare.net]

  When the symptoms are associated with anosmia or hyposmia without findings such as harelip and cleft palate, neuro-sensorial deafness, cerebellar ataxia and renal agenesia, a diagnosis of Kallmann syndrome should be confirmed. [scielo.br]

• Altered Mental Status

  English Clinical manifestations of NMS are hyperpyrexia, muscle rigidity, altered mental status and evidence of autonomic instability (irregular pulse or blood pressure, tachycardia, diaphoresis and cardiac dysrhythmia). [mymemory.translated.net]

• Amenorrhea

  Hypothalamic disorders such as tumors and hypothalamic amenorrhea, as well as exposure to radiation, can lead to hypogonadism. [ccpd.ucsf.edu]

  Gov't MeSH terms Adult Amenorrhea/genetics* Amenorrhea/metabolism Amenorrhea/physiopathology Chromosomes, Human, Pair 4/genetics Chromosomes, Human, X/genetics Chromosomes, Human, X/metabolism Female Gene Deletion Genotype Gonadotropins/metabolism Humans [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Characteristic features in males include testicular hypoplasia, gynecomastia, and absent facial hair growth, while females commonly present with amenorrhea. [amboss.com]

  including facial, pubic, chest, axillary hair; laryngeal enlargement; vocal chord thickening; alterations in body musculature; fat distribution) Osteoporosis In Women: Women develop ovarian suppression with irregular periods or absence of periods (amenorrhea [pituitary.org]

• Anorchia

  CRYPTORCHIDISM B/L CONGENITAL ANORCHIA(Vanishing testes syn. [slideshare.net]

  Acquired causes (due to damage to or dysfunction of the gonads) include ovarian torsion, vanishing/anorchia, orchitis, premature ovarian failure, ovarian resistance syndrome, trauma, surgery, autoimmunity, chemotherapy, radiation, infections (e.g., sexually-transmitted [en.wikipedia.org]

  Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (primary hypogonadism) Definition: insufficient sex steroid production in the gonads Primary gonadal insufficiency; : Turner syndrome; (females), Klinefelter syndrome (males), androgen insensitivity syndrome, anorchia Secondary [amboss.com]

  Causes of primary hypogonadism include: Karyotype abnormalities—Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY syndrome) is the most common Toxin exposure, chemotherapy Congenital defects—anorchia, cryptorchidism13 Orchitis (mumps, autoimmune) Testicular trauma or infarction [mdedge.com]

  Anorchia, the absence of both testicles at birth. Cryptorchidism, where one or both testicles do not descend into the scrotum. A separate lesson covers the details of this condition. Mumps, chemotherapy, and certain medications. [study.com]

• Microphallus

  Androgen deficiency during the 2nd and 3rd trimesters may cause a microphallus and partially or completely undescended testes. [msdmanuals.com]

  Second- or 3rd-trimester onset of testosterone deficiency results in microphallus and undescended testes. [merckmanuals.com]

  Indications for Testosterone/Androgen Therapy Androgen deficiency (male hypogonadism) Microphallus (neonatal) Delayed puberty in boys Elderly men with low total or bioavailable or free testosterone levels Angioneurotic edema Other possible uses or under [enotes.tripod.com]

• Enlargement of the Prostate

  Enlargement of the prostate is another serious side-effect that should be monitored. [yourhormones.info]

  if you already have enlargement of your prostate gland, your signs and symptoms can get worse while receiving AVEED. [xinyaohui.com]

• Oliguria

  English Adverse reactions irrespective of trial drug relationship reported during clinical trials were bleeding episodes, oliguria, hyperpyrexia and joint dislocation. [mymemory.translated.net]

The diagnosis of post-pubescent hypogonadism is based on clinical symptoms and low testosterone levels on at least 2 occasions [7]. Once testosterone deficiency is suspected physical examination should focus on [14]:

• Evaluation of the testes: presence, position consistency, size
• Examination of genitalia for abnormalities: hypospadias, micropenis
• Digital rectal examination (DRE) 
• Tanner staging
• Muscle mass and strength
• Body mass index, weight, and abdominal girth

Patient history should include [11]:

• Sexual history with particular attention to erectile dysfunction and libido
• Complaints of fatigue and lack of energy
• Depression and mood changes

Laboratory studies [1] [11]:

• Baseline screening
• Complete blood count (CBC)
• Renal function tests
• Lipid profile 
• DEXA scan
• Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test

Additional laboratory studies [1] [11]:

• Testosterone levels
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) levels
• Prolactin levels
• Thyroid function
• Seminal fluid examination
• Karyotyping
• Testicular biopsy

Testosterone levels vary throughout the day, so serial testing is required. The best time is to draw blood in the early morning [11]. According to the Endocrine Society, total testosterone levels of 10.4 mmol ⁄ l (300 ng ⁄ dl ) and free testosterone levels of 50-65 pg ⁄ ml are considered the lower limit of normal [11] [14].

If the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is abnormal, a transrectal ultrasound and prostate biopsy should be done before starting testosterone replacement therapy to rule out underlying prostate cancer [1].

Treatment of male hypogonadism is testosterone replacement therapy. The aim of therapy is to return testosterone levels to a normal value, between 300–1000 ng ⁄ dl [11].

Studies have shown that this may reverse the symptoms of the disorder; increasing libido and sexual function, reducing the ratio of fat to lean body mass, and improving bone density [11]. It is even thought to decrease insulin resistance [11] [13] improve glycemic control, cholesterol levels, and hemoglobin A1C [9] [13] [13].

Hypogonadism is associated with multiple comorbidities occurring in older men [3], such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease, psychosocial function, and diminished quality of life [9]. Treatment with testosterone replacement is recommended in older men with low testosterone who are symptomatic [3] [9] [14].

Several formulations of testosterone are available. It is important, that the choice be geared to the individual by taking into consideration the patient’s needs and life circumstances [11].
Forms of testosterone replacement available include [11]:

• Intramuscular injections are the most cost effective form. Injections are given every two weeks. Often produces fluctuations in hormone levels and recurrence of symptoms between doses.
• Transdermal patches are the closest to normal hormone production. They need to be applied to the skin each night. Local skin irritation may occur. 
• Transdermal gels 1% testosterone gel. Applied once a day. Can be transferred to others, partner or to children, through contact. 
• Nasal testosterone gel recently approved in the United States [8]. This may resolve the issue of person to person transfer.

Contraindications to testosterone replacement therapy [11] [16]:

• Male breast cancer
• Prostate cancer (known or suspected)
• Sensitivity to ingredients in the delivery system

Caution when using testosterone replacement in the presence of [11] [16]:

• Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)
• Lower urinary tract symptoms
• Preexisting cardiac, renal, or hepatic disease
• Gynaecomastia
• Sleep apnea
• Azoospermia
• Testicular atrophy
• Erythrocytosis

Testosterone replacement therapy is not recommended in patients concerned with fertility issues. Therapy does not correct the causes of this disability [13] [18]. In fact, exogenous testosterone may affect the feedback mechanism of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis, resulting in impaired spermatogenesis [6] [18]. An alternative therapy is available. Clomiphene citrate has been used for these patients. This is an estrogen receptor modulator that increases gonadotropin levels and stimulates testosterone and sperm production [6]. Few studies are as yet available, however.

Follow-up care primarily involves the monitoring of treatment results and early identification of complications [1] [11] [16].

• Prostate specific antigen levels and digital rectal exams should be perform before starting treatment and regularly during therapy. 
• Liver function tests
• Lipid profile
• Repeat hematocrit levels. If hematocrit rises above 54% treatment should be stopped until the it returns to normal.
• Bone density, baseline before treatment and regularly after therapy is discontinued.

Patients should also be regularly monitored for resolution of symptoms of testosterone deficiency and adverse reactions to therapy, specifically changes in mood and behavior and increased sleep apnea [1].

Greater longevity and the increasing incidence of type 2 diabetes and obesity predicts that male hypogonadism will become more prevalent in the future [11] [14].

Hypogonadism in both men and women can cause infertility.
This disorder increases the risk for diabetes, osteoporosis, and cardiovascular disease [13] [16]. Hormone replacement therapy reduces or prevents the symptoms and complications of hypogonadism [4] [11].

Diagnosis of male hypogonadism requires the combination of low serum testosterone levels and the presence of the associated symptoms [11]. However the symptoms are vague and also occurring in other disorders. The symptoms are due to the effects of testosterone in the body [1]. Testosterone plays a role in carbohydrate and fat metabolism, bone mineralization, and adipogenesis [12].

Testosterone levels vary with age [11]. Levels of total testosterone level <8-10 mmol/l are considered deficient [1] in adult men. Level between 10 and 12nmol/l are considered borderline [6]. Values above 12mmol/l are normal [1].

A broader definition of hypogonadism considers the physiology of the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis and its function [5] [13].
The symptoms of testosterone deficiency vary by the age of onset and may be classified as [1] [11] [12]:

• Pre-pubescent hypogonadism causes delayed puberty and lack of secondary sex characteristics. Affected children are treated with testosterone replacement therapy. 
• Post-pubescent hypogonadism results in sexual dysfunction: Erectile dysfunction, decreased libido, decreased sperm count, and, ultimately, infertility.
• Late-onset hypogonadism is often considered a normal process of aging. However, not all men experience low testosterone and its symptoms as they age [9] [14].

Male hypogonadism may also be categorized by the underlying cause as congenital or acquired [1].

Causes of primary congenital hypogonadism [1] [15]:

• Chromosomal abnormalities [14] (XX males, Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome [15])
• Leydig cell aplasia
• Cryptorchidism
• Defects of the hypothalamus or pituitary [14]
• Impaired testosterone synthesis

Primary acquired hypogonadism may be [1] [14]:

• Idiopathic
• Gonadotoxic agents
• Radiotherapy
• HIV
• Testicular trauma/torsion/orchitis
• Systemic disease or medication

Causes of secondary acquired hypogonadism [1]:

• Tumors
• Infection
• Pituitary infarction
• Drug use
• Alcohol

Early detection and treatment of hypogonadism may prevent the secondary effects of the disorder: Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, diabetes, and obesity [2] [14] [17]. This should prompt primary care providers to evaluate all men presenting with these disorders for hypogonadism [14].

The prevalence of hypogonadism in men is estimated to be 38.7% in men over the age of 65 [9] [11]. Studies have shown the incidence to be approximately 25% in Caucasians, 30% in Hispanics, and perhaps higher in African Americans [4]. Exact prevalence is difficult because the disorder is underdiagnosed [1] [2]. Ethnic and geographical variations in the incidence of male hypogonadism are not clear, but may be associated with the incidence of comorbidities [14].

Prevalence increases with age [4]. The incidence of testosterone deficiency, in some studies, was 6% in men ages 40 to 69 years [10] and 6 to 10%in men 40 to 65 [1] [11]. Below the age of 40, less than 1% of men have low testosterone levels [1]. Male hypogonadism occurs in 25 to 40% of individuals with type 2 diabetes and increases to near 50% when obesity and type 2 diabetes occurred together [14].

Male hypogonadism is related to the functioning of the hypothalamic–pituitary–testicular (HPT) axis which maintains and regulates testosterone levels [5] [14]. The hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). This activates the pituitary to release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Luteinizing hormone then stimulates testicular Leydig cells to produce testosterone. Follicle-stimulating hormone initiates spermatogenesis in testicular Sertoli cells.

Normal functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is needed for normal gonadal development and sex hormone production [7] [16] [18]. Male hypogonadism is due to dysfunction of the axis [14]. Two biomarkers can be used to measure Leydig cell function, serum testosterone and insulin-like factor 3 (INSL3) levels [5].

Normal circulating testosterone levels provide a negative biofeedback to inhibit hypothalamus and pituitary gland hormone production [11] [14].

The physiologic effects of testosterone include [11] [13]:

• Maintenance of reproductive tissues
• Stimulation of spermatogenesis
• Maintenance of sexual function
• Regulation of lean body mass
• Maintenance of bone mass
• Promotion of axillary and body hair growth
• Stimulation of erythropoiesis

Primary hypogonadism is due to testicular failure and is indicated by low serum testosterone with high luteinizing hormone and follicular stimulating hormone levels [11].

Secondary hypogonadism is associated with defects in the hypothalamus or pituitary gland and results in low testosterone due to insufficient stimulation of the Leydig cells [11].

Hypogonadism may be caused by a combination of primary and secondary factors, mixed hypogonadism [11]. This is
seen in sickle-cell disease, thalassemia, alcoholism, glucocorticoid treatment, and in older men [11].

Testosterone regulates body composition (fat and lean muscle mass), and its deficiency produces impaired glucose metabolism and hypercholesterolemia [13]. This predisposed individuals with hypogonadism to type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease [11] [13] [14].

Complications of hypogonadism can be prevented or limited by early diagnosis of testosterone deficiency and institution of testosterone replacement therapy.

Current studies point to the possibility of reducing the prevalence of hypogonadism by controlling possible risk factors; preventing obesity, maintaining healthy weight, and controlling type 2 diabetes.

Hypogonadism refers to a decrease in the sexual hormones produced by the gonads, primarily testosterone and estrogen. However, the term is most often used to refer to a group of characteristic clinical symptoms and the evidence of testosterone deficiency in men (<10.4nmol/l) [1] [2] [3] [4]. The diagnosis is difficult because lower normal testosterone levels used to identify the disorder vary widely and the signs and symptoms are vague [3] [4].

Although hypogonadism is most common in older males [5], it can occur in younger men and, rarely, in women [6] [7]. Hypogonadism occurs before and after the onset of puberty [1] [7]. In pre-pubescent males without testosterone replacement, individuals have signs of eunuchoidism, sparse body hair, poor muscles development, and delayed epiphyseal closure [1] [5]. In post-pubescent males, symptoms include fatigue and impaired sexual function [1]. Females with hypogonadism, due to genetic abnormalities, fail to develop through puberty and experience primary or secondary amenorrhea [7] [8].

Hypogonadism is associated with increased cardiovascular risk, obesity, type 2 diabetes, decreased bone density [9], sexual dysfunction and infertility [2] [4] [6]. It is also associated with behavioral changes and cognitive deficits [10].

Standard treatment for symptomatic hypogonadism is hormone (testosterone and estrogen) replacement therapy. However studies have suggested that, despite the large number of men affected by the disorder, only 5 to 10 % of them are routinely treated [6] [10].

What is hypogonadism?

Hypogonadism is defined as an deficiency of sex hormones, specifically testosterone in men. It is associated with a variety of symptoms that occur with many other conditions. It is seen more often in men who are obese or have type 2 diabetes.
Hypogonadism can result in many physical, psychological, and life altering complications.

What are the symptoms?

Symptoms of hypogonadism include:

• Sexual dysfunction: reduced libido, erectile dysfunction
• Decreased muscle mass and strength
• Depression
• Decreased energy and increased fatigue
• Osteoporosis or low bone mass

Symptoms that suggest low testosterone include:

• Delayed or absence of sexual development
• Decreased sperm count, infertility
• Gynaecomastia or breast enlargement in men
• Lack or loss of axillary, facial, and pubic hair
• Small or shrinking testes
• Poor concentration and memory
• Sleep disturbances, insomnia
• Increased body fat and body mass index
• Menopausal-type hot flushes

What causes hypogonadism?

The exact cause of hypogonadism is not known. However, this disorder can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary hypogonadism is the result of dysfunction of the gonads, sex organs, themselves, and causes decreased or absent hormone production. This may be congenital (a genetic abnormality) or acquired (tumor, infection, or injury). Secondary hypogonadism is due to an abnormality of the regulating mechanism of the body that controls hormone production. This may be due to defects of the hypothalamus or pituitary gland.

Who gets hypogonadism?

Hypogonadism may occur before or after puberty, at any age. However it is most common in men over the age of 65 years.
Those who are obese or have type 2 diabetes are at higher risk.

How is it diagnosed?

Hypogonadism is diagnosed by the presence of symptoms of testosterone deficiency and testosterone levels below 10 mmol/dl.
A simple blood test and a through health history are all that are required.

How is hypogonadism treated?

Hypogonadism is treated with testosterone as hormone replacement. Testosterone may be given by injection, transdermal patch, or topical gel.

What are the complications of Hypogonadism?

Complication of hypogonadism include increased cardiovascular disease (eg. hypertension), obesity, type-2 diabetes, decreased bone density, sexual dysfunction and possible infertility. It may also result in behavioral changes, loss of memory, and depression [7].

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