The set of symptoms accompanying abnormally high levels of plasma glucocorticoids – whether of endogenous or exogenous origin - is called Cushing’s syndrome. Endogenous Cushing’s syndrome can be adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) dependent or independent. In ACTH-dependent condition, ACTH levels are high, whereas, in ACTH-independent cases, which often derive from adrenal neoplasms, ACTH levels are low because of the feedback effect of the glucocorticoids on the pituitary gland. Cushing’s syndrome caused by exogenously administered glucocorticoids is called iatrogenic Cushing's disease or iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome. It occurs more frequently than the endogenous condition due to the extensive use of glucocorticoids for their anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects.

The severity of the Cushing’s syndrome symptoms in patients on glucocorticoids will depend on the dosage, the length of treatment, and the variant of glucocorticoid compound used. Many different versions of glucocorticoids have been synthesized with the aim of optimizing their effects, and these compounds may differ in many respects; for example, by their rate of absorption, metabolism, water solubility, and affinity for glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors. Drug interactions also have an important role in the development of the condition. Prominent examples are drugs that inactivate cytochrome P450 enzymes, interfering with the breakdown of glucocorticoids, and thereby enhancing their activities. Ritonavir, a protease inhibitor and a component of combination antiretroviral therapy, is a powerful inhibitor of cytochrome P450. Its use, together with fluticasone has led to exogenous Cushing’s disease, with complications of osteoporosis and diabetes [1]. Together with oral budesonide, it resulted in weakness, muscle wasting, and other characteristic symptoms in a hepatitis sufferer [2]. Inhaled fluticasone propionate taken together with antidepressants was reported to result in the rapid development of symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome [3].

The increased prevalence of obesity can make it difficult to identify a patient with true Cushing’s syndrome [4], but there are several characteristic features of the condition that together allow it to be diagnosed (apart from laboratory tests that verify the condition). These effects include redistribution of fat resulting in moon face and centripetal obesity, glucocorticoid acne, buffalo hump, thinning of the skin, and purple striae. Patients also notice a weakening of muscles, diabetes, hypertension, increased infections, problems with wound healing, osteopenia, osteoporosis [5], and psychological problems. Women may experience hormonal problems leading to amenorrhea and infertility. Men may also be affected with infertility and loss of libido. Diabetes and peptic ulceration may also cause symptoms. Children’s growth is retarded, but otherwise, their symptoms are somewhat different and less striking than those of adults [6].

• Weight Gain

  Weight gain in face (moon face) Weight gain above the collar bone (supraclavicular fat pad) Weight gain on the back of neck (buffalo hump) Skin changes with easy bruising in the extremities and development of purplish stretch marks (striae) particularly [aans.org]

  (Figure 2) is a 9 month old male infant who presented with 7 week history of excessive weight gain. [panafrican-med-journal.com]

  gain and energy level. [pediatrics.aappublications.org]

• Buffalo Hump

  View of buffalo hump, on the patient’s neck. F ig. 2. View of buffalo hump, on the patient’s neck. [academic.oup.com]

  The authors note that the patient was referred to the pediatric department with stunted growth, truncal obesity, purple skin striate, buffalo hump, and moon face six months after initiation of topical ocular GC treatment. [medicalxpress.com]

  Discussion Clinical Presentation and Workup Our patient presented with physical findings consistent with CS, including central obesity, “moon facies” and a “buffalo hump” (dorsocervical fat pad). [journals.sagepub.com]

  These effects include redistribution of fat resulting in moon face and centripetal obesity, glucocorticoid acne, buffalo hump, thinning of the skin, and purple striae. [symptoma.com]

  He had a moon face appearance with truncal obesity, buffalo hump, hypertrichosis in trunk, and purple striae in the axilla, periumbilical, and inguinal region. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Cushingoid Facies

  On physical examination she had cushingoid facies, truncal obesity, drumstick limbs, and paper-thin skin with striae. [thelancet.com]

  Figures Figure 1: Cushingoid facies of the 1st affected child Figure 2: Cushingoid facies of the 2nd affected child Figure 3: Picture of intranasal steroid administered References Newell-Price J, Bertagna X, Grossman A, Nieman L. Cushing's syndrome. [panafrican-med-journal.com]

  facies and poor growth. [pediatrics.aappublications.org]

  At the time of the physical examination, the patient had a cushingoid facies with small eyes, mouth in carp, vultuous cheeks, bitemporal fat, hypertrichosis and chin ( Figure 1 ). [scielo.conicyt.cl]

• Supraclavicular Fat Pads

  Signs and symptoms of Cushing syndrome Patients may have increased adipose tissue in the face (moon facies), upper back at the base of neck (buffalo hump), and above the clavicles (supraclavicular fat pads). [emedicine.medscape.com]

  Weight gain in face (moon face) Weight gain above the collar bone (supraclavicular fat pad) Weight gain on the back of neck (buffalo hump) Skin changes with easy bruising in the extremities and development of purplish stretch marks (striae) particularly [aans.org]

• Easy Bruising

  Memory loss was due to job stress and thin skin and easy bruising were due to sun exposure. After foot and back fractures at age 47, I was finally diagnosed. [csrf.net]

  […] arms, legs, and buttocks (central obesity) Skin changes that are often seen include: Skin infections Purple stretch marks (1/2 inch or 1 centimeter or more wide), called striae, on the skin of the abdomen, thighs, upper arms, and breasts Thin skin with easy [medlineplus.gov]

  Use of ICS are associated with increased risk of pneumonia, tuberculosis, easy bruising, osteoporosis, diabetes, oro-pharyngeal candidiasis, hoarseness of voice and even iatrogenic CS in patients with COPD, where the risk-benefit ratio has to be considered [openrespiratorymedicinejournal.com]

  Some symptoms are Upper body obesity Thin arms and legs Severe fatigue and muscle weakness High blood pressure High blood sugar Easy bruising Lab tests can show if you have it and find the cause. [fpnotebook.com]

  Presence of moon face, marked obesity on the body, hirsutism, buffalo hump, purple striae, hypertension, muscle weakness, easy bruising on the skin and acne are classic signs [ 1 ]. [academic.oup.com]

• Sneezing

  Use of INC reduces the polyp size as well as the nasal symptoms, including nasal congestion, sneezing, rhinorrheoa, loss of smell, and postnasal drip in patients with chronic rhino-sinusitis with nasal polyps [46, 47]. [openrespiratorymedicinejournal.com]

  Teach the patient to avoid coughing, sneezing, or blowing the nose immediately after surgery. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  Use of INC reduces the polyp size as well as the nasal symptoms, including nasal congestion, sneezing, rhinorrheoa, loss of smell, and postnasal drip in patients with chronic rhino-sinusitis with nasal polyps [ 46 Lund VJ, Flood J, Sykes AP, et al. [benthamopen.com]

• Increased Appetite

  Increased thirst and urination. Increased appetite to the point of greed, stealing and begging for food. Panting, shortness of breath and overheated. Always on a cool surface. [secondchanceaihadogs.com]

  She had a full moon face, increased hirsutism (especially in the face), nightly sweating and an increased appetite. Also her behaviour had changed over the previous weeks. No oedema was present. [edm.bioscientifica.com]

  However, rapid weight gain, increased appetite, abdominal striae, easy bruising, facial hirsutism, facial plethora, and neuropsychological manifestations are commonly associated with CS where as peripheral atrophy is more commonly associated with lipodystrophy [openrespiratorymedicinejournal.com]

• Hypertension

  In our case, mild hypertension to the local steroid treatment was recorded and the blood pressure turned into normal limits after the cessation of application. [e-ijd.org]

  December 2016: FP Essentials # 30 REVIEW Joseph M Pappachan, Harit N Buch Elevated blood pressure resulting from few endocrine disorders (endocrine hypertension) accounts for a high proportion of cases of secondary hypertension. [read.qxmd.com]

  It is characterized by upper body OBESITY; OSTEOPOROSIS; HYPERTENSION; DIABETES MELLITUS; HIRSUTISM; AMENORRHEA; and excess body fluid. [fpnotebook.com]

  Patients may also have a history of hypertension and diabetes. [statpearls.com]

• Thin Skin

  Dry, flaking, and thinning skin, risk of staph infections, difficulty with wound healing, darkening and blackening of skin. Risk of developing iatrogenic diabetes. Increased susceptibility to infections. [secondchanceaihadogs.com]

  He had Cushingoid image, truncal obesity, drumstick limbs, and paper-thin skin with striae, and crops of dense, inflamed pustules on his chest and back [Figure 1]. [e-ijd.org]

  On physical examination she had cushingoid facies, truncal obesity, drumstick limbs, and paper-thin skin with striae. [thelancet.com]

  Memory loss was due to job stress and thin skin and easy bruising were due to sun exposure. After foot and back fractures at age 47, I was finally diagnosed. [csrf.net]

• Purpura

  […] amniotic sac Thigh, knee, and popliteal fossa Thin basement membrane nephropathy Thoracic aortic aneurysm Thoracic cavity Thoracic outlet syndrome Thromboangiitis obliterans Thrombocytopenia Thrombosed external hemorrhoid Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura [amboss.com]

  Discussion Local adverse effects of topical steroids are acne, purpura, atrophy, striae, and telangiectasia. ICS and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis suppression are rare but unignorable complications of topical steroids [ 1, 4 – 6 ]. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Delayed Wound Healing

  Other possible signs include poor skin and hair condition, muscle atrophy, increased abdominal fat, enlarged liver, chronic or recurrent infections (especially skin or urinary), delayed wound healing, excessive panting, sodium retention (which can cause [hallettvet.com]

  In addition, the systemic side effects of excess cortisol can delay wound healing and result in immune suppression [ 1, 2, 6 ]. [academic.oup.com]

  Decreased IL-2 levels prevent the proliferation of T-lymphocytes. [9] History and Physical Patients may have a history of weight gain, fatigue, weakness, delayed wound healing, easy bruising, back pain, bone pain, loss of height, depression, mood swings [statpearls.com]

• Muscle Weakness

  Potty belly due to muscle weakness, fat redistribution and water retention. Muscle weakness leads to instability in standing and walking. Significant coat problems and hair loss. Hair is unable to grow back until the dose is lowered. [secondchanceaihadogs.com]

  Some symptoms are Upper body obesity Thin arms and legs Severe fatigue and muscle weakness High blood pressure High blood sugar Easy bruising Lab tests can show if you have it and find the cause. [fpnotebook.com]

  ICS patients may present with purple striae, central obesity, hypertension, buffalo hump, muscle weakness, moon face, hirsutism, and easy bruising of skin like in our patient [ 1, 4 – 6 ]. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Muscular Atrophy

  Prevalence rate of the other clinical features such as polyphagia, abdominal enlargement, panting, muscular atrophy, prominent vasculature, calcinosis cutis and thin skin were characteristically high in spontaneous Cushing's syndrome as compared to iatrogenic [ci.nii.ac.jp]

  atrophy Spinal stenosis Spinocerebellar ataxia Spleen Splenic rupture Splenomegaly Spondylolisthesis Sports injuries Staphylococcal diseases Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome Statins Statistical analysis of data Stevens-Johnson syndrome Stiff person [amboss.com]

  atrophy; edema; hypokalemia; and some degree of emotional change. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

• Facial Redness

  The most common symptoms and signs of excess levels of cortisol in the body are obesity, facial plethora (facial redness), violaceous abdominal striae (purple or bluish stripes on the abdomen), thinning of the skin that leads to spontaneous bruising, [britannica.com]

• Mood Swings

  swings Cushing's syndrome can also cause high blood pressure, which can be serious if not treated. [nhs.uk]

  Symptoms also include fatigue, weakness, depression, mood swings, increased thirst and urination, and lack of menstrual periods in women. [nadf.us]

  […] puffy-looking face (‘moon face’) Thin skin, easily bruised, slow healing and ulcers Muscular weakness Thirst Frequent urination Headaches High blood pressure High white blood cell count, low serum potassium High blood sugar (in 80 per cent of patients) Mood [betterhealth.vic.gov.au]

  Decreased IL-2 levels prevent the proliferation of T-lymphocytes. [9] History and Physical Patients may have a history of weight gain, fatigue, weakness, delayed wound healing, easy bruising, back pain, bone pain, loss of height, depression, mood swings [statpearls.com]

• Loss of Libido

  Men may also be affected with infertility and loss of libido. Diabetes and peptic ulceration may also cause symptoms. Children’s growth is retarded, but otherwise, their symptoms are somewhat different and less striking than those of adults. [symptoma.com]

  emotional reactivity, loss of libido, erectile dysfunction in males, irregular menstrual cycles in females, infertility, hyperhidrosis, hirsutism, biparietal visual loss if there is a large pituitary adenoma, recurrent fungal and bacterial infections [statpearls.com]

• Psychiatric Manifestation

  manifestations such as depression and psychosis (Newell-Price et al. 2006 ). [springerplus.springeropen.com]

  View Article PubMed Google Scholar Jeffcoate WJ, Silverstone JT, Edwards CR, Besser GM: Psychiatric manifestations of Cushing's syndrome: response to lowering of plasma cortisol. Q J Med. 1979, 48: 465-472. [ojrd.biomedcentral.com]

• Amenorrhea

  It is characterized by upper body OBESITY; OSTEOPOROSIS; HYPERTENSION; DIABETES MELLITUS; HIRSUTISM; AMENORRHEA; and excess body fluid. [fpnotebook.com]

  Women may experience hormonal problems leading to amenorrhea and infertility. Men may also be affected with infertility and loss of libido. Diabetes and peptic ulceration may also cause symptoms. [symptoma.com]

  […] on the abdomen), thinning of the skin that leads to spontaneous bruising, muscle weakness and wasting, back pain, osteopenia and osteoporosis, depression and other psychological symptoms, hypertension, and menstrual disturbances ( oligomenorrhea and amenorrhea [britannica.com]

  […] centered over the chest and abdomen with thin arms and legs Excessive hair growth (hirsutism) on face, neck, chest, abdomen and thighs Female balding Generalized weakness and fatigue Blurry vision Vertigo Muscle weakness Menstrual disorders in women (amenorrhea [aans.org]

• Polyuria

  Lab investigation Increased total serum cortisol Increased free cortisol Decreased serum ACTH Hypothesis: Iatrogenic Cushing’s syndrome Additional Learning issues: Pathophysiology of some Cushing’s disease clinical features Polyuria, polydipsia cortisol [medatrio.com]

  The most common findings were polyuria and polydipsia in 30 dogs (75.0%) consisted of 15 iatrogenic (71.4%) and 15 spontaneous (78.9%) cases, and alopecia in 25 dogs (62.5%) including 13 iatrogenic (61.9%) and 12 spontaneous (63.2%) cases. [ci.nii.ac.jp]

  2017: Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Case Reports # 23 Stefanie Hoffrogge, Lena Fels, Marion Schmicke, Reinhard Mischke In a 12-year-old male Labrador Retriever, presented due to other disease symptoms, clinical signs of hyperadrenocorticism (polyuria [read.qxmd.com]

  […] oligo/amenorrhea, hirsutism/acne (ACTH-dependent) More specific: broad (> 1cm) purple striae, proximal muscle weakness Other: increased risk of infection, increased cardiovascular risk, thromboembolism, bone loss, fractures, kidney stones, polydipsia, polyuria [hopkinsguides.com]

  Affected dogs show polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, muscle weakness and atrophy, pendulous abdomen, hair loss and an increased susceptibility to infection, particularly of the skin and urinary tract. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

• Oligomenorrhea

  […] or bluish stripes on the abdomen), thinning of the skin that leads to spontaneous bruising, muscle weakness and wasting, back pain, osteopenia and osteoporosis, depression and other psychological symptoms, hypertension, and menstrual disturbances ( oligomenorrhea [britannica.com]

  […] increase in intraocular pressure, benign intracranial hypertension, cataracts, osteoporosis, aseptic necrosis of the femoral head, and pancreatitis, are more common in iatrogenic than endogenous CS, whereas features like hypertension, hirsutism, and oligomenorrhea [openrespiratorymedicinejournal.com]

• Irritability

  This con dition should be distinguished from irritative diaper dermatitis (90% of cases), as management changes significantly. [scielo.conicyt.cl]

  […] absent menstrual periods Signs and symptoms men with Cushing syndrome may experience Decreased sex drive Decreased fertility Erectile dysfunction Other possible signs and symptoms of Cushing syndrome Severe fatigue Muscle weakness Depression, anxiety and irritability [mayoclinic.org]

  […] face (‘moon face’) Thin skin, easily bruised, slow healing and ulcers Muscular weakness Thirst Frequent urination Headaches High blood pressure High white blood cell count, low serum potassium High blood sugar (in 80 per cent of patients) Mood swings, irritability [betterhealth.vic.gov.au]

  Gastrointestinal (GI) irritation may lead to peptic ulcers, and both insulin resistance and glucose intolerance can cause hyperglycemia. Causes The causes are divided into three categories: iatrogenic, primary, and secondary. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  […] hyperbilirubinemia Innate immune system Insertional tendinopathy Insulin Insulinoma Internal hernia Interstitial lung disease Intestinal ischemia Intracerebral hemorrhage Intrauterine growth restriction Intravenous anaesthetics Intussusception Iron deficiency anemia Irritable [amboss.com]

• Excitement

  Cortisol is an essential hormone for many body functions, including maintaining normal electrical excitation of the heart, blood glucose level, nerve cell conduction, and adequate circulatory volume, and for metabolizing proteins, fats, and carbohydrates [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

Before any other examination, a suspicion of Cushing’s disease should prompt a thorough review of all medications, including different forms of the administered glucocorticoids, to exclude or verify the possibility of the condition’s iatrogenic origin. Apart from glucocorticoids, other compounds, like megestrol acetate with progesterone activity, also have glucocorticoid-like effects [7]. Herbal products have also been reported to contain glucocorticoids [8].

Laboratory workup shows signs of adrenal suppression (early morning cortisol and ACTH levels being low [1] [2] [3]), owing to low ACTH output caused by the exogenous glucocorticoids. However, it should be remembered that hydrocortisone increases cortisol levels [9]. Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels are also low. ACTH stimulation tests are also below normal [1] [3]. Tests for 24-h urinary cortisol tend to be normal, at the lower values of the normal range [2] [3]. Patients are often hypokalemic, and blood glucose may be high [3]. Bone mineral density measurement will determine the level of osteopenia or osteoporosis.

• Nephrolithiasis

  Mycosis fungoides Myelodysplastic syndromes Myeloproliferative neoplasms Myocarditis Myotonic syndromes Narcolepsy Nasal papilloma Necrotizing enterocolitis Neonatal jaundice Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome Neoplastic meningitis Nephritic syndrome Nephrolithiasis [amboss.com]

  Typical features include weight gain, central obesity, dorsocervical hump, moon face, facial plethora, thin skin, easy bruising, abdominal striae, hirsutism, proximal myopathy, osteopenia, glucose intolerance, hypertension, nephrolithiasis and psychiatric [springerplus.springeropen.com]

• Delayed Bone Age

  The indica ted treatment was topical with hydrocortisone acetate and delayed bone age (BA) (6 months BA for 1 year 3 months in chronological age). [scielo.conicyt.cl]

• Hypoglycemia

  Keywords: 40 y.o woman Has diabetes & hypertension for 6 months On oral hypoglycemia & antihypertensive medication Height: 165cm Weight: 85kg BMI: overweight/obese Moon shaped facies Truncal obesity Abdominal striae Diminished motor strength of proximal [medatrio.com]

  Other findings include hypoglycemia, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, and metabolic acidosis. Causes The most common cause of iatrogenic, or drug-related, Cushing syndrome is glucocorticoids. [emedicine.medscape.com]

  […] disease Hydrocephalus Hypercoagulable states Hyperglycemic crises Hyperparathyroidism Hyperprolactinemia Hypersensitivity pneumonitis Hypersensitivity reactions Hypertension Hypertensive pregnancy disorders Hyperthyroidism Hypertrophic pyloric stenosis Hypoglycemia [amboss.com]

• Hyperuricemia

  S257 - 8 ) 3 Cushing's syndrome caused by topical steroid therapy for psoriasis, Neth J Med, 2002, vol. 60 (pg. 148 - 50 ) 4 Erythrodermic psoriasis associated with hyperuricemia and iatrogenic Cushing syndrome due to topical corticosteroid therapy, Int [academic.oup.com]

  […] trauma Gestational trophoblastic disease Giant cell arteritis Giardiasis Glaucoma Glomerular diseases Glomus tumors Glucocorticoids Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency Glycogen metabolism Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis Goiter Gonorrhea Gout and hyperuricemia [amboss.com]

• Hypochloremia

  Diagnostic highlights Abnormal blood chemistries are common, including hypokalemia, hypochloremia, and metabolic alkalosis because of increased excretion of potassium and chloride. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

• Polyps

  Use of INC reduces the polyp size as well as the nasal symptoms, including nasal congestion, sneezing, rhinorrheoa, loss of smell, and postnasal drip in patients with chronic rhino-sinusitis with nasal polyps [46, 47]. [openrespiratorymedicinejournal.com]

  Use of INC reduces the polyp size as well as the nasal symptoms, including nasal congestion, sneezing, rhinorrheoa, loss of smell, and postnasal drip in patients with chronic rhino-sinusitis with nasal polyps [ 46 Lund VJ, Flood J, Sykes AP, et al. [benthamopen.com]

  […] venous disease Cirrhosis Citric acid cycle Clavicle fracture Cleft lip and cleft palate Clostridium difficile infection Cluster headache Collection of dermatological disorders Collection of orthopedic conditions Collection of zoonotic diseases Colonic polyps [amboss.com]

Fluticasone furoate is an intranasal steroid spray for the treatment of allergic rhinitis (2). [edm.bioscientifica.com]

She did not present any side effects during the first year of treatment. After 12 months of posaconazole treatment, she progressively presented at first a skin fragility and then a venous stasis dermatitis with weight gain (6 kg) and a moon face. [aac.asm.org]

In the fourth month of treatment, the basal serum cortisol level was 8.3 g/dl and peak cortisol response to ACTH stimulation test was 24 mg/dl. Therefore, the treatment was terminated by reducing hydrocortisone doses. [academic.oup.com]

TS is the first choice of treatment for localized and mild PV [ 4, 5 ]. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

The prognosis is worsened in the setting of an unresectable hormone-secreting tumor. [statpearls.com]

However, surgery helps the patient for a while only when the tumour is malignant and the long term prognosis is poorer than that of benign tumours. (iii) Pituitary gland tumour - This is the cause of 85% of cushingoid cases. [highstreeteppingvetclinic.com]

Prognosis Prognosis depends on the source of the problem. When pituitary adenomas are identified as the source of increased ACTH leading to cortisol excess, about 80% of patients are cured by surgery. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

Older children with CS or mixed androgen and cortisol secreting adrenocortical tumors had a worse prognosis compared to younger children (29). [scielo.br]

Untreated Cushing associated with high risk of mortality, poor prognosis seen in ectopic ACTH syndrome and adrenocortical carcinoma Basis for recommendation Nieman LK, Biller BM, Findling JW, et al. [hopkinsguides.com]

Use Additional Use Additional Help Certain conditions have both an underlying etiology and multiple body system manifestations due to the underlying etiology. [icd10data.com]

It has been commonly described with oral and topical steroid use, but scarce reports have documented intranasal steroid usage as the etiology in infancy. [read.qxmd.com]

ACTH-dependent cortisol excess due to a pituitary adenoma is called Cushing disease, and it is responsible for 80% of endogenous Cushing syndrome. [1] [2] [3] Etiology There are two main etiologies of Cushing syndrome: endogenous hypercortisolism and [statpearls.com]

Steps necessary for the etiological diagnosis of ACTH dependent Cusging’s syndrome are summarized in Figure 2. Figure 2 Steps necessary for the etiological diagnosis of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. [ojrd.biomedcentral.com]

Morbidity and mortality in Cushing's disease: an epidemiological approach. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1994;40(4):479-84. [hopkinsguides.com]

Diagnostic implications of adrenal physiology and clinical epidemiology for evaluation of glucocorticoid excess and deficiency. In DeGroot, L. J., Jameson, J. L. Eds. Endocrinology. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2001, pp. 1655–1670. Aron D. [akjournals.com]

Adrenal hyperplasia, adenoma, and carcinoma are major causes of ACTH-independent Cushing syndrome. [4] [5] [6] Epidemiology Actual incidence and prevalence of Cushing syndrome are not known. [statpearls.com]

Google Scholar Steffensen C, Bak AM, Rubeck KZ, Jorgensen JO: Epidemiology of Cushing's syndrome. Neuroendocrinology. 2010, 92 (Suppl 1): 1-5. [ojrd.biomedcentral.com]

Epidemiology, pathophysiology and treatment. CNS Drugs 2001 ;15(5):361-73. [ Links ] 64. Forget H, Lacroix A, Cohen H. Persistent cognitive impairment following surgical treatment of Cushing's syndrome. [scielo.br]

Lab investigation Increased total serum cortisol Increased free cortisol Decreased serum ACTH Hypothesis: Iatrogenic Cushing’s syndrome Additional Learning issues: Pathophysiology of some Cushing’s disease clinical features Polyuria, polydipsia cortisol [medatrio.com]

We also discuss the pathophysiology, differential diagnosis and management of the condition in such patients, as well as how it can be distinguished from HIV-associated lipodystrophy. [journals.sagepub.com]

The pathophysiologic roles of interleukin-6 in human disease. Ann Intern Med 1998;128(2):127-37. Endereço para correspondência: Luiz Roberto Salgado Av. Brigadeiro Luiz Antônio 4258 01402-002 São Paulo, SP Fax: (11) 3885-6719 E-mail: [email protected] [passeidireto.com]

Louis: Saunders Elsevier; 2009: 481-483. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Harold J Bruyere: 100 Case Studies in Pathophysiology. [physio-pedia.com]

[…] hypercortisolism outweighs the endogenous causes, of the endogenous causes pituitary mediated ACTH production accounts for up to 80% of cases of hypercortisolism, followed by adrenals, unknown source and ectopic ACTH production secondary to malignancies. [7] [8] Pathophysiology [statpearls.com]

Taking medicines to prevent bone loss. This can help reduce the risk of fractures if you develop osteoporosis. Taking medicine to decrease the amount of glucocorticoid medicine that you need. [medlineplus.gov]

At the time of discharge, the patient should have a dietary consult and how to prevent osteoporosis. The pharmacist should educate the patient on the prevention of peptic ulcer disease, diabetes, and weight gain. [statpearls.com]

Recommendations of the National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2003, 52: 1-8. [mrmjournal.biomedcentral.com]

Its recognition is vital in order to institute appropriate management and prevent the life threatening possibility of adrenal crisis. [endocrine-abstracts.org]

The rational and careful use of topical corticosteroids has multiple therapeutic benefits and may prevent ma jor adverse reactions. [scielo.conicyt.cl]

1. Epperla N, McKiernan F. Iatrogenic Cushing syndrome and adrenal insufficiency during concomitant therapy with ritonavir and fluticasone. Springerplus. 2015 Aug 27;4:455.
2. Yeoh SW. Iatrogenic Cushing Syndrome from Interaction Between Ritonavir and Oral Budesonide During Direct Acting Antiviral Hepatitis C Therapy. J Clin Exp Hepatol. 2016 Sep;6(3):246-249.
3. Celik O, Niyazoglu M, Soylu H, Kadioglu P. Iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome with inhaled steroid plus antidepressant drugs. Multidiscip Respir Med. 2012 Aug 29;7(1):26.
4. Findling JW, Raff H. Cushing's Syndrome: important issues in diagnosis and management. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Oct;91(10):3746-3753
5. Di Somma C, Pivonello R, Loche S, et al. Severe impairment of bone mass and turnover in Cushing’s disease: comparison between childhood-onset and adulthood-onset disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2002; 56:153–158.

6. Magiakou MA, Mastorakos G, Oldfield EH, et al. Cushing’s syndrome in children and adolescents. Presentation, diagnosis, and therapy. N Engl J Med 1994; 331:629–636.

7. Mann M, Koller E, Murgo A, Malozowski S, Bacsanyi J, Leinung M. Glucocorticoidlike activity of megestrol. A summary of Food and Drug Administration experience and a review of the literature. Arch Intern Med. 1997 Aug 11-25;157(15):1651-1656.
8. Abuchaibe C, Akhtar ON. SAT-0776: Exogenous Cushing's Syndrome after Use of OTC Joint Supplement. Adrenal Case Reports 1 - CAH and Adrenal Insufficiency. Endocrine Society's 96th Annual Meeting and Expo, June 21–24, 2014 – Chicago. Available at http://press.endocrine.org/doi/abs/10.1210/endo-meetings.2014.AHPAA.1.SAT-0776. Accessed: 4/2/15.
9. Newell-Price J, Bertagna X, Grossman AB, Nieman LK. Cushing's syndrome. Lancet. 2006 May 13;367(9522):1605-1617.