Most patients are asymptomatic and IC may be an incidental finding diagnosed during a routine otological examination.

With regards to those patients who do present with manifest IC, partial conductive hearing loss is the most common symptom. Patients may also describe a feeling of fullness or pressure inside their ears. Otalgia and pruritus may be noted. Tinnitus has also been associated with IC. Dizziness and vertigo have been described and may result from functional impairment of the vestibular system.

Young children may be unable to provide such a detailed description of discomfort and pain. They may merely touch their ears repeatedly and present feeding and sleeping problems. Parents may note a reduced ability to hear.

About 50% of IC patients present with bilateral symptoms [5].

• Pain

  Wet wax may also predispose to fungal infection resulting in a painful ear. [drsethi.com.sg]

  Untreated buildup can lead to hearing loss, irritation, pain in the ear, dizziness, ringing in the ears and other problems. Earwax can be removed in several ways; some of these methods can be done at home. [my.clevelandclinic.org]

  DO seek medical attention with ear pain, drainage, or bleeding. These are not symptoms of cerumen impaction and need further evaluation. [entnet.org]

  Risk of skin irritation, pain, and vertigo (if TM is not intact). Irrigation Effective, but most efficient (using less fluid) if preceded by cerumenolytic. Risk of trauma and pain. [pedemmorsels.com]

• Falling

  This will help it fall out on its own and should prevent blocked ears. [nhs.uk]

  Normally, earwax moves toward the opening of the ear and falls out or is washed away, but some people's ears produce too much wax. The extra wax can build up and harden in the ear canal and become difficult to remove. [kidshealth.org]

  Normally, earwax moves toward the opening of the ear and falls out or is washed away, but some people’s ears produce too much wax. The extra wax can build up and harden in the ear canal and become difficult to remove. [connecticutchildrens.org]

  Eventually, the wax dries and falls out of the ear in small unnoticeable flakes. The ear canal can become blocked with wax if too much wax is produced or if the ear is cleaned improperly. [shcs.ucdavis.edu]

  In many cases, the build-up becomes loose and falls out on its own, without the need for treatment. [healthand.com]

• Inflammation

  […] to inflammation and infection, bilateral H61.329 Acquired stenosis of external ear canal secondary to inflammation and infection, unspecified ear H61.39 Other acquired stenosis of external ear canal H61.391 Other acquired stenosis of right external ear [icd10coded.com]

  The aforementioned mechanisms are insufficient to clear this mass and patients now have an increased risk for hearing loss, infection, inflammation and ear pain. [symptoma.com]

  Preparations containing organic solvents are particularly likely to cause irritation and inflammation of the external ear canal and should be avoided. 10. [slideshare.net]

  A swollen ear canal could be a sign of inflammation and infection. In some cases, a prolonged blockage can lead to vertigo – a sensation of always falling – and other complications that become more difficult to treat as time goes on. [centerforaud.com]

  However, auditory canal inflammation may cause increased cerumen production. Therefore, in patients with recurrent otitis externa, it is recommended that specialist consultation be obtained. [visualdx.com]

• Asymptomatic

  Many patients presenting this condition remain asymptomatic for years. However, IC is associated with an increased risk of infection, inflammation and hearing loss. [symptoma.com]

  Forty-two (17.8%) of our patients were asymptomatic, and they did not complained of ear problem. [nigeriamedj.com]

  Asymptomatic cerumen does not require active management. [guidelinecentral.com]

  Diagnosis Cerumen typically is asymptomatic and does not impair physical examination. [aafp.org]

  […] otoscopy to detect the presence of earwax in patients with hearing aids during a clinic visit; Clinicians should recommend against ear candling, coning or treating for preventing impacted earwax; Clinicians should not routinely treat earwax removal in asymptomatic [healio.com]

• Fever

  Indications for intervention Excessive or impacted cerumen may be present in as many as 10% of children on routine examination and may block a child’s smaller ear canals, making removal necessary to allow full evaluation of the tympanic membrane in cases of fever [aappublications.org]

  You have a fever. You have trouble hearing or hear ringing noises. You have questions or concerns about your condition or care. When should I seek immediate care? You feel dizzy. You have discharge or blood coming out of your ear. [ehr.wrshealth.com]

  It is especially important to come into our office, as soon as possible, if you experience pain, fever, or drainage. [gulfcoastfacialplastics.com]

• Cough

  […] may be hard, obstructs the auditory canal risk factors for cerumen impaction are (3): old age learning disability use of cotton swabs in ears hearing aids earplugs clinical features of cerumen (2) ear discomfort hearing loss tinnitus dizziness chronic cough [gpnotebook.com]

  Impacted cerumen can cause earaches, temporary hearing loss, ringing in the ear (tinnitus), coughing, or a feeling that the ear is full or plugged. It also can increase the risk of an outer ear infection. [kidshealth.org]

• Vomiting

  When you should see your GP If you experience any of the following, you should see your GP for advice or further treatment: Pain Discharge Fever Vomiting Your ear is still blocked after 5 days You’re having trouble hearing because of the blockage FAQs [specsavers.ie]

  […] or scuba diving) If you develop drainage from your ear If you experience severe pain, fever, or continuing hearing loss When to go to the hospital If you have a severe spinning sensation, loss of balance, or inability to walk If you have persistent vomiting [emedicinehealth.com]

  Go to the hospital if: You have a severe spinning sensation, loss of balance, or inability to walk You have persistent vomiting or high fever You experience sudden loss of hearing Exams and Tests A doctor can diagnose earwax blockage (or eardrum perforation [webmd.com]

  Nausea, vomiting and vertigo. Facial nerve palsy has been reported.[13] [patient.info]

• Nausea

  This symptom can cause nausea and a sensation of moving even when a person is staying still. Impacted earwax can be frustrating, but it is usually easy to resolve with home remedies or medical treatment. [medicalnewstoday.com]

  Nausea, vomiting and vertigo. Facial nerve palsy has been reported.[13] [patient.info]

• Constipation

  2019 2020 Non-Billable/Non-Specific Code Applicable To Prolapsed arm Type 1 Excludes impacted shoulders (O66.0) shoulder dystocia (O66.0) ICD-10-CM Diagnosis Code K56.41 Fecal impaction 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Billable/Specific Code Type 1 Excludes constipation [icd10data.com]

• Eczema

  Caution is advised to avoid having your ears irrigated if you have diabetes, a hole in the eardrum (perforation), tube in the eardrum, skin problems such as eczema in the ear canal or a weakened immune system. [enthealth.org]

  You may not be able to prevent impacted earwax if you have certain health conditions that make it more likely to have earwax buildup, such as eczema. [uchealth.com]

  […] cerumen impaction include: Trying to remove cerumen with a cotton-tipped swab A twisted, narrow, or complicated ear canal Ears that overproduce or make thick cerumen Dense hair growth in the ear canal Hearing aid or ear plug use Skin conditions such as eczema [winchesterhospital.org]

• Dermatitis

  Inflammatory: associated with foul odor, infection, or dermatitis. Quantitative: obstructive, copious cerumen that cannot be removed without magnification and multiple instrumentations requiring physician skills. [asha.org]

  • Inflammatory considerations: Associated with foul odor, infection, or dermatitis. • Quantitative considerations: Obstructive, copious cerumen that cannot be removed without magnification and multiple instrumentations requiring physician skills." [aapc.com]

  […] external auditory canal, the tympanic membrane, or a middle ear condition Bothersome symptoms: Extremely hard, dry, irritative cerumen causing symptoms such as pain, itching, and hearing loss Inflammation: Associated with foul odor, infection, or dermatitis [jucm.com]

• Tinnitus

  May 15, 2007 (3) Earwax: What you should know.American Academy of Family Physicians, 2007 Links: syringing (to remove ear wax ) hearing loss (conductive) tinnitus otalgia [gpnotebook.com]

  Pulsatile tinnitus is a rare type of tinnitus that sounds like a rhythmic pulsing in the ear, usually in time with your heartbeat. [nidcd.nih.gov]

  Symptoms • Diminished hearing – often of sudden onset after “cleaning” the ears • Discomfort – seldom complain of pain unless the wax is pressing on the drum • Tinnitus occasionally 6. [slideshare.net]

  Impacted cerumen can cause earaches, temporary hearing loss, ringing in the ear (tinnitus), coughing, or a feeling that the ear is full or plugged. It also can increase the risk of an outer ear infection. [kidshealth.org]

• Ear Fullness

  When cerumen impaction is severe enough to cause hearing loss, there will likely be other signs and symptoms noticed, such as dizziness, ear fullness (a feeling that something is plugging up your ear), itchiness or pain in the ears and/or ringing in the [starkey.com]

  Trouble hearing Dizziness Ear fullness or a feeling that something is plugging up your ear Itchiness or pain in the ears Ringing in the ears How is cerumen impaction diagnosed? Your healthcare provider will ask about your medical history. [ehr.wrshealth.com]

  Symptoms of a cerumen blockage include: Earache Tinnitus (ringing of the ears) Decreased hearing Feeling of ear fullness Dizziness If a blockage occurs, it may need to be removed. [yourhearingconnection.com]

  The symptoms of impacted earwax are hearing loss, earache, sense of ear fullness, itchiness in the ear, dizziness, ringing in the ear and a cough. How to properly clean your inner ears You don’t actually need to clean your inner ears. [health.qld.gov.au]

  Impacted earwax can cause symptoms like ear pain, itching, feeling of fullness in the ear, ringing in the ear (tinnitus), hearing loss, discharge coming from the ear, odor coming from the ear, cough, and/or change in hearing aid function. [entnet.org]

• Hearing Problem

  Children with a history of impacted cerumen are therefore at greater risk of subsequent hearing problems and of a more permanent nature than those without, notwithstanding the removal of such impacted cerumen. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Earwax is a common cause of hearing problems Earwax can create problems for our hearing when it starts to build up in our ears, a process known as impaction. [health.qld.gov.au]

• Otalgia

  This is, however, not an option if patients suffer from hearing loss or otalgia. Ceruminolytics may also significantly improve the effectivity of irrigation. [symptoma.com]

  May 15, 2007 (3) Earwax: What you should know.American Academy of Family Physicians, 2007 Links: syringing (to remove ear wax ) hearing loss (conductive) tinnitus otalgia [gpnotebook.com]

  […] they include EAC bruises and otalgia in 3.7% and failure of cerumen removal in 2.1% of patients. [nigeriamedj.com]

  If the patient’s ear wax is cleared, ensure that the symptoms (tinnitus, hearing loss, or otalgia) are resolved. If not, think of another diagnosis. Roland PS, et al. Clinical practice guideline: cerumen impaction. [hippoed.com]

  The list of common presenting complaints is long and includes symptoms with many different causes such as otalgia, tinnitus, and dizziness, hearing loss, aural fullness, ear itching, or foreign-body sensation. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Hearing Impairment

  The prevention of cerumen impaction should be of significant public health concern in the management of hearing impairment in children, especially where there is no routine and systematic screening for hearing disorders. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  This hearing impairment is painless. Impacted earwax is often found in infants, because the large cotton swabs used to remove the wax often push it further into the baby’s tiny ear canal. [britannica.com]

  Hearing impairment is a major complaint which may increase the burden of disability on society. [nigeriamedj.com]

  Even people with MCI (Mild Cognitive Impairment) show signs of cerebral atrophy. [fhacoahu.com]

  Many patients have cerumen and/or otitis media with effusion causing conductive hearing impairment as well as general health issues. Both aural impediments are diagnosed by routine otoscopy, are easily treated, and may affect rehabilitation. [unboundmedicine.com]

• Dizziness

  Untreated buildup can lead to hearing loss, irritation, pain in the ear, dizziness, ringing in the ears and other problems. Earwax can be removed in several ways; some of these methods can be done at home. [my.clevelandclinic.org]

  […] cerumen, which may be hard, obstructs the auditory canal risk factors for cerumen impaction are (3): old age learning disability use of cotton swabs in ears hearing aids earplugs clinical features of cerumen (2) ear discomfort hearing loss tinnitus dizziness [gpnotebook.com]

  This method has no dizziness risk, but it is not as safe to remove wax that is embedded on the ear drum as irrigation. [yourhearingconnection.com]

  You feel dizzy. You have discharge or blood coming out of your ear. Your ear pain does not go away or gets worse. [ehr.wrshealth.com]

• Vertigo

  Vertigo (not all experts believe that wax is a cause of vertigo). Cough (rare and caused by pressure on the auricular branch of the vagus nerve). [patient.info]

  However, if earwax is totally blocking your ear, or if any of the following symptoms are present, it may need to be removed: hearing loss, earache, tinnitus (noises in your ear that come from an internal source), vertigo (the feeling that you are moving [hse.ie]

  Irrigation in the presence of a perforated TM may produce caloric effects resulting in vertigo. Mechanical removal of cerumen is the preferred technique in these patients. [aafp.org]

  However, sometimes existing symptoms, such as hearing loss, earache, dizziness (vertigo) and ringing in the ears (tinnitus), can get worse if left untreated. [healthand.com]

  Vertigo: an increase in air pressure due to the wax inside the ear canal can inadvertently stimulate the organ of balance which is located inside the inner ear. [clearwax.co.uk]

• Confusion

  Confusion or agitation (may be unable to sit still). Inability to co-operate - eg, young children and some people with learning disabilities. [patient.info]

  Hearing loss has been shown to increase risk of isolation, confusion, increased accidents at home and depression. [nursingtimes.net]

  Replace the wax trap once per three months or whenever hearing aid is not working Those who use Behind the Ear (BTE) hearing aids: detach the earmold from the hearing aid one ear at a time to avoid confusion that might arise due to switching of hearing [guidelinecentral.com]

• Stroke

  When employing the thermojet process, and for correspondingly increased productivity, sectional layers are simultaneously deposited for more than one custom-moulded ear-plug unit or shell, essentially in one single stroke by one applicator head or by [patentcut.com]

  For example since the vibration stroke of the membrane communicates acoustic pressure a smaller confined area limits the modes of vibration's amplitudes, effecting the amplitude that can be communicated as a function of frequency. [freepatentsonline.com]

• Agitation

  Confusion or agitation (may be unable to sit still). Inability to co-operate - eg, young children and some people with learning disabilities. [patient.info]

IC is diagnosed by means of a standard otological examination. Otoscopic examination of the external acoustic meatus does not allow for visualization of the tympanic membrane because a dense mass of cerumen plugs the ear passage. The skin lining the external auditory canal typically shows signs of inflammation, e.g., erythema and edema. Severity of IC as well as position and properties of the ceruminal mass should be assessed during this examination.

Removal of cerumen is the treatment of choice in symptomatic patients. Watchful waiting is indicated in the remaining IC patients, since the condition may resolve spontaneously within a few days.

Removal of cerumen should be carried out with utmost care in order to avoid inflicting damage to the external auditory canal or the tympanic membrane. In general, three therapeutic approaches can be distinguished: irrigation, application of ceruminolytics and manual removal [1]. These techniques are frequently combined, i.e., an irrigation with a solution containing ceruminolytics may be more effective than either method alone.

Irrigation

Irrigation may be carried out with saline solution or ceruminolytics, both warmed up to body temperature. Ideally, an irrigation is prepared by applying either of both liquids half an hour before the ear is rinsed. Removal of the ceruminal plug may be largely facilitated after soaking. With regards to the equipment, both ear syringes as well as oral jet irrigators are frequently used. However, the latter should not be utilized without putting on a supplementary ear irrigator tip. Excess pressure largely increases the risk for perforation of the tympanic membrane and other trauma. Many otolaryngologists use improvised irrigation system, which is a valid alternative as long as the physician disposes of the necessary experience to manage it [10].

Irrigation is contraindicated in patients presenting tympanic membrane perforations or that recently underwent surgery to reconstruct this organ.

Application of ceruminolytics

Ceruminolytics alone may resolve up to 40% of IC cases if applied regularly during prolonged periods of time. This is, however, not an option if patients suffer from hearing loss or otalgia. Ceruminolytics may also significantly improve the effectivity of irrigation. Distinct formulations are available, but superiority has not been proven for any particular product.

Similar to what has been stated about irrigation, ceruminolytics are not to be administered in patients that do or did suffer from tympanic membrane perforations.

Manual removal

Manual removal of cerumen is carried out with a curette, forceps, or suction device. It is the method of choice if both irrigation and ceruminolytics are contraindicated or if direct visualization of the procedure is required for any other reason.

IC has generally an excellent prognosis. Many patients presenting this condition remain asymptomatic for years. However, IC is associated with an increased risk of infection, inflammation and hearing loss. In fact, it has been estimated that one out of three children suffering from otitis media also shows IC. Considering the above given epidemiological data, this estimate corresponds to a threefold increase when compared with the general pediatric population.

Complications that may arise from removal of IC are traumas to the external auditory canal or the tympanic membrane, subsequent otalgia, otitis externa or media and further hearing loss.

Any pathologic condition interfering with the process of ceruminokinesis may ultimately provoke IC. For instance, anatomic anomalies such as a narrow or abnormally shaped external auditory canal may impede transport of cerumen towards the outer ear. This is not necessarily a congenital condition since space-occupying processes like hyperkeratosis, inflammatory swelling, osteophytes, tumors and a variety of other pathologies may secondarily restrict the lumen of the external acoustic meatus. Similarly, patients who are wearing hearing aids are plugging their ear passage and thus provoke retention of earwax.

Both changes in quality and quantity of cerumen may increase the risk of IC. Ceruminal fluidity decreases with age. While children generally dispose of well-viscous cerumen, earwax is rather dry and brittle in the elderly. An excess production of cerumen may result from dyskeratosis and other dermatological disorders.

Any ineffective attempt to remove cerumen from the external auditory canal may literally result in compaction of earwax in front of the tympanic membrane. Available transport mechanisms cannot clear this dense mass and continuous secretion of new cerumen adds to its volume. Therefore, neither cotton swabs and much less pencils, hair pins or other objects are suitable to clear the ear passage from earwax.

It has been estimated that 10% of all children and 5% of otherwise healthy adults suffer from IC, although the condition may be asymptomatic in a large share of these patients [4]. The small and narrow external auditory canal of pediatric patients may partially explain the observed high incidence in this age group. With regards to adults and as has been mentioned above, IC is most frequently observed in the elderly. Patients suffering from mental retardation pose another risk group.

A male-to-female ratio of 1.6 to 1 has been observed in a study comprising more than 200 patients [5].

The external auditory canal is lined with modified skin that nevertheless contains all characteristic appendages, i.e., hairs, sebaceous and sweat glands. Local sweat glands are particularly wide merocrine glands and are called ceruminal glands. Sebaceous glands, in contrast, are holocrine glands that open into hair follicles. Both sebaceous and ceruminal glands contribute to cerumen production. Earwax mainly consists of saturated and unsaturated long-chain fatty acids, alcohols, squalene and cholesterol [6].

Not only skin appendages but also skin layers found in the external acoustic meatus correspond to those of other regions of the body. Thus, cells originating from the basal layer of the epidermis pass through multiple phases of differentiation until being shed from the stratum corneum. However, they are not cleared as easily from skin surface and become part of the cerumen instead. It has been estimated that keratin accounts for more than half of the total weight of cerumen. But removal of keratin and cellular debris is only one of those functions fulfilled by cerumen.

Cerumen poses both a mechanical and chemical barrier against infection and infestation of the ear. Ceruminokinesis, i.e., the constant but barely noticeable outward flow of cerumen, transports keratin, debris, dust and other foreign bodies that may have entered the external auditory canal towards the outer ear. Furthermore, cerumen has antibacterial and antimycotic properties: Its pH is slightly acidic and cerumen contains lysozyme, an antibacterial hydrolase also contained in saliva, lacrimal fluid and nasal secretion. Although genetic variations between distinct types of cerumen have been described a long time ago, more recent studies could not find significant differences regarding incidence rates of otitis externa and ceruminal bactericidal activity [7] [8]. The presence of cerumen may, however, significantly diminish the risk of an ear infection in case of skin lesions within the external auditory canal. Of note, microbial evolution brought forth bacterial strains, mainly Staphylococcus spp. and Bacillus spp., able to survive in cerumen and utilize its components for growth and replication [9].

One of the main risk factors for IC is the ineffective attempt to remove cerumen from the external auditory canal inserting cotton swabs, hair pins, keys or other not suitable objects. This generally results in compaction of cerumen in the depth of the external ear. Patients should be advised against such behavior. Removal of cerumen should only be carried out by trained health care professionals.

Patients with an increased risk of IC may use ceruminolytics to prevent this condition.

The external auditory canal, also called external acoustic meatus, extends from the outer ear to the tympanic membrane and is therefore considered to be part of the external ear. The auditory ossicles (malleus, incus and stapes) are located within the middle ear and thus medial to the tympanic membrane. Finally, cochlea and vestibular system compose the inner ear. Here, mechanical stimuli originating from sound waves and body posture changes are translated into nervous signals.

A variety of mechanical and chemical barriers avoids damage to the sensitive parts of middle and inner ear. One of those barriers is cerumen produced in the external auditory canal. The latter is lined with skin that, similar to other areas of the body, contains sebaceous glands and sweat glands. However, due to anatomical and physiological modifications, local sweat glands are designated ceruminal glands. Both sebaceous and ceruminal glands contribute to cerumen production [1]. Furthermore, desquamated epithelial cells, hairs, debris and dust may constitute more or less physiological parts of cerumen.

Cerumen, as produced by sebaceous and ceruminal glands, is a yellowish, viscous liquid. Its properties change with time, dehydration and retention of debris and dust, as mentioned above: It loses fluidity, becomes darker, harder and brittle. It should nevertheless be transported towards the outer ear and be cleared from the external auditory canal by means of a process called ceruminokinesis, i.e., cerumen transport stimulated by masticatory movements. However, any condition interfering with ceruminokinesis prolongs the time of retention of cerumen inside the external auditory canal, promotes further hardening until finally, the ceruminal plug cannot be removed by any means. This condition is referred to as impacted cerumen (IC).

IC is a very common condition and has been estimated to affect about 5% of the population. The widely spread habit of trying to remove cerumen with cotton swabs, pencils or otherwise unsuitable objects increases the risk of IC [2]. It may be an incidental finding in asymptomatic patients, but the pathology may also cause significant hearing impairment, otalgia and dizziness and have patients present to the emergency room [3]. Thus, general practitioners, otolaryngologist and those professionals attending in emergency departments should all dispose of detailed knowledge regarding treatment options for IC.

External, middle and inner ear are the three main parts of the human ear. The external auditory canal is part of the external ear and extends from the outer ear to the tympanic membrane. It is lined by modified skin that disposes of hair follicles, hairs, sebaceous and sweat glands. Here, the latter are also called ceruminal glands. Similar to any other region of the human body, skin cells within the ear passage are shed after passing through distinct phases of differentiation. Hairs may fall out now and then.

Both sebaceous and ceruminal glands contribute to production of cerumen, a secretion that fulfills a variety of protective functions. On the one hand, it has antibacterial and antimycotic properties and thus reduces the risk of infection. On the other hand, it clears the external auditory canal from fallen hair, dead cells, debris, dust and any foreign body that may have entered the ear. Therefor, a constant outward flow is required. It is induced by chewing movements.

Any pathological condition that interferes with ceruminal flow will result in an accumulation of cerumen and all the aforementioned particles within the external ear. For instance, some patients have a very narrow external auditory canal; others may suffer from dermatological diseases that yield increased quantities of desquamated cells. Also, people wearing a hearing aid may involuntarily provoke an accumulation of cerumen which, in medical terms, is designated impacted cerumen.

One of the most common causes for impacted cerumen is the ineffective attempt to remove earwax with cotton swabs, hair pins, keys or any other not suitable object. The result of such measures generally is a compact mass of cerumen lodged in front of the tympanic membrane. The aforementioned mechanisms are insufficient to clear this mass and patients now have an increased risk for hearing loss, infection, inflammation and ear pain.

Removal of cerumen should only ever be carried out by a trained health care professional.

1. Guest JF, Greener MJ, Robinson AC, Smith AF. Impacted cerumen: composition, production, epidemiology and management. Qjm. 2004; 97(8):477-488.
2. Baxter P. Association between use of cotton tipped swabs and cerumen plugs. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1983; 287(6401):1260.
3. Isaacson JE, Vora NM. Differential diagnosis and treatment of hearing loss. Am Fam Physician. 2003; 68(6):1125-1132.
4. McCarter DF, Courtney AU, Pollart SM. Cerumen impaction. Am Fam Physician. 2007; 75(10):1523-1528.
5. Gabriel OT. Cerumen impaction: Challenges and management profile in a rural health facility. Niger Med J. 2015; 56(6):390-393.
6. Okuda I, Bingham B, Stoney P, Hawke M. The organic composition of earwax. J Otolaryngol. 1991; 20(3):212-215.
7. Ibraimov AI. Cerumen phenotypes in certain populations of Eurasia and Africa. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1991; 84(2):209-211.
8. Pata YS, Ozturk C, Akbas Y, Gorur K, Unal M, Ozcan C. Has cerumen a protective role in recurrent external otitis? Am J Otolaryngol. 2003; 24(4):209-212.
9. Gerchman Y, Patichov R, Zeltzer T. Lipolytic, proteolytic, and cholesterol-degrading bacteria from the human cerumen. Curr Microbiol. 2012; 64(6):588-591.
10. Propst EJ, George T, Janjua A, James A, Campisi P, Forte V. Removal of impacted cerumen in children using an aural irrigation system. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2012; 76(12):1840-1843.