Symptoms of leukemia vary with the type. The common symptoms of the disease include the following [9]:

• Undue weight loss
• Constant felling of tiredness and fatigue
• Pain in bone
• Fever accompanied by chills
• Excessive sweating especially during night hours
• Easy prone to infections
• Bleeding or bruising very easily
• Hepatomegaly
• Splenomegaly
• Swollen lymph nodes
• Development of petechiae

• Splenomegaly

  Leukemia is usually associated with anemia, fever, hemorrhagic episodes, and splenomegaly. [icd9data.com]

  T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia (T-PLL) is the most common type of mature T-cell leukemia and is characterized by a rapidly rising peripheral blood lymphocyte count, bone marrow involvement, and splenomegaly. [1] The disease in most patients follows an [web.archive.org]

  Five features were present in >50% of children: hepatomegaly (64%), splenomegaly (61%), pallor (54%), fever (53%) and bruising (52%). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Other patients present with splenomegaly, fever, weight loss, malaise, frequent infections, bleeding, thrombosis, or lymphadenopathy. [emedicine.medscape.com]

• Easy Bruising

  Others include easy bruising or bleeding and weight loss. Blood tests and bone marrow aspiration and biopsy are among the tests that may be done to diagnose this cancer. [cancercenter.com]

  Acute leukemia usually develops quickly and tends to cause fatigue, easy bruising, and frequent infections. Chronic leukemia usually develops slowly, with the leukemia cells working almost as well as normal white blood cells. [uabmedicine.org]

  Some of the symptoms of leukemia may include: Feeling tired Fever or night sweats Easy bruising or bleeding Weight loss or loss of appetite Petechiae, which are tiny red dots under the skin. They are caused by bleeding. [medlineplus.gov]

  Then also because of the platelets can be affected a lot of times patients will present with bleeding or easy bruising. We sometimes see what we call petechiae, which is just a medical word for small red dot under the skin. [youtube.com]

  Easy bruising or bleeding: People with leukemia may bleed from their gums or noses, or may find blood in their stool or urine. Bruises may develop from very minor bumps. Small spots of discoloration — called petechiae — may form under the skin. [my.clevelandclinic.org]

• Fever

  Acute leukemias affect immature cells; the disease develops rapidly, with symptoms including anemia, fever, bleeding, and swelling of the lymph nodes. [britannica.com]

  Of the 19 febrile patients in the filgrastim-treated group, the median time for the onset of fever in 18 patients was on day +8 (range, day +1 to day +12); 1 patient experienced fever on day +29. [bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org]

  Unexplained Fevers Fevers without an obvious source, such as infection, can be a symptom of any cancer, but especially blood-related cancers such as leukemia. [verywellhealth.com]

  Chronic myelogenous leukemia most often begins in the 40s; weight loss, low fever, weakness, and other symptoms may not develop immediately. Chemotherapy helps the symptoms but may not prolong life. [web.archive.org]

• Anemia

  Stage A: The patient does not have anemia or low levels of platelets. The leukemia can be felt in fewer than 3 areas of lymph nodes (Rai stages 0, I and II). Stage B: The patient does not have anemia or low levels of platelets. [cancer.net]

  Symptoms may include: Anemia. When red blood cells are unable to be produced because of the crowding in the marrow, anemia is present. [stanfordchildrens.org]

  Because the body is so busy producing "blasts," it can't make as many red blood cells or platelets, which can cause anemia and bleeding disorders. [medbroadcast.com]

  They also crowd out the normal cells in the marrow, causing a decrease in the number of new normal cells made in the marrow and resulting in a low red cell count (anemia). [hopkinsmedicine.org]

  When symptoms do appear, they may include: Anemia: Anemia is caused by having a lower than normal number of red blood cells, which slows down the delivery of oxygen to the body's organs and muscles. [my.clevelandclinic.org]

• Fatigue

  The exercise protocol used increased cardiovascular endurance, reduced fatigue and depression scores, and maintained quality of life. [doi.org]

  Fatigue and weakness iStock/FangXiaNuo Fatigue and weakness are the most common leukemia symptoms, according to Mark Levis, MD, PhD, the director of the leukemia program at the Johns Hopkins Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center. [rd.com]

  Fatigue Excessive tiredness is a very common symptom of leukemia. Though there are many causes of fatigue, cancer fatigue tends to be more dramatic than the ordinary tiredness people feel when they lack sleep. [verywellhealth.com]

  Lymphocytes, carries along by the lymph fluid, are part of the immune system and fight infection. in the blood, enlarged lymph nodes, skin rash or fatigue. [lymphoma.org]

  Common problems include fatigue, infections, easy bruising, weight loss, fevers, enlarged spleen and enlarged liver. ALL can also cause abnormal masses in the chest or testicles. ALL treatment is a multi-step process. [froedtert.com]

• Weight Loss

  Other symptoms : There may be nausea, fever, chills, night sweats, flu-like symptoms, weight loss, bone pain, and tiredness. If the liver or spleen becomes enlarged the person may feel full and will eat less, resulting in weight loss. [medicalnewstoday.com]

  Others include easy bruising or bleeding and weight loss. Blood tests and bone marrow aspiration and biopsy are among the tests that may be done to diagnose this cancer. [cancercenter.com]

  When symptoms do appear, they can include fatigue, unusual bleeding, weight loss, loss of appetite and excessive sweating. CML can also cause the spleen to enlarge, leading to symptoms of abdominal pain or fullness. [froedtert.com]

  Symptoms Symptoms of leukemia include fatigue, tiredness, unexplained weight loss, fever and chills, frequent nose bleeds, excessive sweating and bone pain along with tenderness. [symptoma.com]

  Unintentional Weight Loss Unexplained weight loss is a classic sign of all cancers and is generally suggestive of a more advanced malignancy. [verywellhealth.com]

• Exposure to Benzene

  But some things can increase your risk of getting AML, including: previous chemotherapy or radiotherapy exposure to very high levels of radiation (including previous radiotherapy treatment) smoking and other exposure to benzene, a chemical used in manufacturing [nhs.uk]

  This includes earlier exposure to chemotherapy, Down’s syndrome and other genetic disorders, exposure to benzene and other chemicals, exposure to radiation therapy etc. [news-medical.net]

  Exposure to certain chemicals Being exposed to certain chemicals has been linked with some types of leukemia. For example, exposure to benzene is a risk factor for AML. It may also be a risk factor for acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL). [urmc.rochester.edu]

  Along with a family history of blood cancers, other factors that could increase your risk of leukemia include: Exposure to benzene, a chemical used in some industries. [hillman.upmc.com]

• Dyspnea

  Difficulty breathing (dyspnea). With T-cell ALL, these leukemia cells tend to clump together around the thymus, a small organ just behind the breastbone. [stanfordchildrens.org]

  Difficulty breathing (dyspnea). With T-cell ALL, these leukemia cells tend to clump together around the thymus. This mass of cells present in the middle of the chest can cause pain and difficulty breathing (dyspnea). [childrensnational.org]

  Clinical picture is characterised by dyspnea, spontaneous pneumothoraces, hemoptysis and chylothorax. We present a 43-years old female patient with a history of spontaneous pneumothoraces and lung involvement. [worldcat.org]

  The presenting features most commonly include dyspnea, symptoms of pneumothorax and cough. Less commonly patients can present with chest pain, pleural or pericardial effusion and lymphedema. [bib.irb.hr]

• Abdominal Pain

  Abdominal symptoms such as anorexia, weight loss, abdominal pain and abdominal distension are common. Musculoskeletal symptoms such as limp and joint pain also feature prominently. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  The most common symptoms are: Fatigue Frequent infections Enlarged lymph nodes Unexplained fevers Night sweats Bruising and excess bleeding Abdominal pain Bone and joint pain Headaches and other neurological symptoms Unintentional weight loss Because [verywellhealth.com]

  CML can also cause the spleen to enlarge, leading to symptoms of abdominal pain or fullness. CML treatment was revolutionized with the introduction of imatinib (Gleevec) in 2003. [froedtert.com]

• Abdominal Fullness

  Symptoms Early symptoms of leukemia include fever fatigue aching bones or joints headaches skin rashes swollen glands (lymph nodes) unexplained weight loss bleeding or swollen gums an enlarged spleen or liver, or a feeling of abdominal fullness slow-healing [health.harvard.edu]

  Symptoms Early symptoms of leukemia include Fever Fatigue Aching bones or joints Headaches Skin rashes Swollen glands (lymph nodes) Unexplained weight loss Bleeding or swollen gums An enlarged spleen or liver, or a feeling of abdominal fullness Slow-healing [drugs.com]

• Bleeding Gums

  gums nosebleed ( Epistaxis ) Enlargment of liver and spleen ( Hepatosplenomegaly ) Note : chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma and causes leukemic symptomes chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) is a myeloproliferative [flexikon.doccheck.com]

  Symptoms can include: looking pale or "washed out" feeling tired or weak breathlessness frequent infections unusual and frequent bruising or bleeding, such as bleeding gums or nosebleeds losing weight without trying to Seeking medical advice Speak to [nhs.uk]

  You can be very well, maybe a little fatigued, but for the most part feeling yourself and then three weeks later you can have difficulty with bleeding gums, you bump yourself on the kitchen counter and you get a huge bruise instead of a little one. [youtube.com]

  Symptoms can include: Fever, chills, night sweats, and flu-like symptoms Weakness and fatigue Swollen or bleeding gums Headaches Enlarged liver and spleen Swollen tonsils Bone pain Paleness Weight loss 8. [everydayhealth.com]

• Hepatomegaly

  Five features were present in >50% of children: hepatomegaly (64%), splenomegaly (61%), pallor (54%), fever (53%) and bruising (52%). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] symptoms of the disease include the following: Undue weight loss Constant felling of tiredness and fatigue Pain in bone Fever accompanied by chills Excessive sweating especially during night hours Easy prone to infections Bleeding or bruising very easily Hepatomegaly [symptoma.com]

  […] means there are high levels of lymphocytes in the blood Lymphadenopathy, meaning a patient has enlarged lymph nodes Splenomegaly, which is an enlarged spleen Anemia, meaning low levels of red blood cells Thrombocytopenia, meaning low levels of platelets Hepatomegaly [cancer.net]

  Stage II Stage II CLL is characterized by absolute lymphocytosis with either hepatomegaly or splenomegaly with or without lymphadenopathy. [web.archive.org]

• Hepatosplenomegaly

  Note : chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma and causes leukemic symptomes chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) is a myeloproliferative disease (MPD) and causes leucemic and MPD symptoms (e.g. hepatosplenomegaly, blast [flexikon.doccheck.com]

  Hepatosplenomegaly and lymphadenopathy are rare in adults with acute myelogenous leukemia, but are present in about 50% of adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. 12 Central nervous system involvement occurs in approximately 5% to 8% of adults with [aafp.org]

  T-cell large granular lymphocytic leukemia is a rare form of leukemia, caused by clonal proliferation of cytotoxic T-cells, characterized by modest lymphocytosis and cytopenias of other lineage with hepatosplenomegaly and relatively rare lymph nodal involvement [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  माइलोसील myelocyte माइलोसाइट, प्राक्-कणिका श्वेत कोशिका myelofibrosis मज्जातंतुमयता myelogenous (=myelogenic) मज्जाजनित myelogenous leukaemia कणिका श्वेतरक्तता myelography मेरूरज्जुचित्रण myeloid leukaemia मज्जाभ श्वेतरक्तता myeloid magakaryocytic hepatosplenomegaly [bharatavani.in]

• Petechiae

  Where considered clinically appropriate, features that the authors considered similar were aggregated (eg, ‘petechiae’, ‘purpura’ and ‘petechiae/purpura’ were combined into a single category, ‘petechiae/purpura’). [doi.org]

  We sometimes see what we call petechiae, which is just a medical word for small red dot under the skin. We frequently will see that at least initially in the lower part of your body, say below your knees, ankles and feet. [youtube.com]

  Petechiae (small red spots under the skin caused by bleeding) iStock/lzf Dr. Crilley describes petechiae as “like someone painted little red dots with a pen.” [rd.com]

  An additional eight features were present in a third to a half of children: recurrent infections (49%), fatigue (46%), limb pain (43%), hepatosplenomegaly (42%), bruising/petechiae (42%), lymphadenopathy (41%), bleeding tendency (38%) and rash (35%). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Small red dots on your skin—a condition known as petechiae—could also result from leukemia, she adds. "Petechiae usually appears on the lower extremities," Wadleigh adds. [prevention.com]

• Urticaria

  Urticaria was seen in 9 patients (23%) but was usually mild and transient. No patient experienced significant fluid retention. [bloodjournal.org]

  The disease starts as urticaria-like lesions, with multiple cutaneous nodules that may regress and subsequently reappear. In this form of leukosis, the enzootic bovine leukosis virus has not been identified. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Purpura

  Where considered clinically appropriate, features that the authors considered similar were aggregated (eg, ‘petechiae’, ‘purpura’ and ‘petechiae/purpura’ were combined into a single category, ‘petechiae/purpura’). [doi.org]

  classified as palpable purpura or non-palpable purpura and indicates various pathologic conditions such as thrombocytopenia),[7] The term ecchymosis (defined as an area of >1 cm) is synonymous.[2] As a type of hematoma, a bruise is always caused by [en.wikipedia.org]

  […] bleeding, such as bleeding gums or nosebleeds high temperature night sweats bone and joint pain easily bruised skin swollen lymph nodes (glands) tummy (abdominal pain) – caused by a swollen liver or spleen unintentional weight loss a purple skin rash (purpura [nhs.uk]

• Eczema

  Birth order and sibship size as independent risk factors for asthma, allergy, and eczema. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2003; 14 (6):464–469. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] 49. Lewis SA, Britton JR. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Bone Pain

  pain or tenderness These symptoms are often vague and can resemble the flu, so it’s important for patients to be aware of changes in their body and make an appointment to see their doctor if they have any concerns. [utswmed.org]

  […] with leukemia start experiencing bone pain, and that's not pain in just one bone, it's pain throughout the bones of the body. [khanacademy.org]

  This may result in infections, anemia, and easy bleeding, as well as bone pain and pain or a feeling of fullness below the ribs on the left side. [westcancercenter.org]

  Leukemia starts in the bone marrow, the spongy internal part of bones where new blood is made. The term leukemia comes from Greek words for white and blood, because ALL affects white blood cells. [curesearch.org]

  Symptoms Symptoms of leukemia include fatigue, tiredness, unexplained weight loss, fever and chills, frequent nose bleeds, excessive sweating and bone pain along with tenderness. [symptoma.com]

• Arthralgia

  Other side effects included rashes in 4%, arthralgias in 5%, and fatigue in 3%. The preliminary phase II studies of nilotinib in accelerated and blastic phase CML post Gleevec failure were also encouraging. [web.archive.org]

• Epistaxis

  […] lymphocytic leukemia chronic lymphocytic leukemia chronic myelogenous leukemia Hairy cell leukemia 5 Symptoms flu -like symptoms: fever, night sweats (unintentional) loss of weight fatigue syndrome (extreme weakness) swollen or bleeding gums nosebleed ( Epistaxis [flexikon.doccheck.com]

  The animal with acute myeloid leukemia presents with depression, epistaxis, anemia, and severe neutropenia. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Hematuria

  When patients developed hematuria, muscle weakness, or even asymptomatic elevation of CK levels, physicians should pay attention to the occurrence of rhabdomyolysis and take active hydration treatment. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  People with acute promyelocytic leukemia are especially susceptible to developing bruises, small red dots under the skin (petechiae), nosebleeds, bleeding from the gums, blood in the urine (hematuria), or excessive menstrual bleeding. [ghr.nlm.nih.gov]

  In spite of appropriate antibiotic and antifungal therapy, pneumonia was aggravated and gross hematuria was accompanied. [cancerindex.org]

• Headache

  Headaches and Other Neurological Symptoms Headaches and other neurologic symptoms such as seizures, dizziness, visual changes, nausea, and vomiting may occur when leukemia cells invade the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord (cerebrospinal fluid [verywellhealth.com]

  Some of the symptoms are like those seen with a stroke, and include: Headache Weakness in one side of the body Slurred speech Confusion Sleepiness When blood vessels in the lungs are affected, people can have shortness of breath. [cancer.org]

  Pounding headaches iStock/AZarubaika Although not common, frequent pounding headaches may be a sign of leukemia-related anemia or even a life-threatening case of bleeding in the head. These are the signs of cancer men are most likely to ignore. [rd.com]

  You must lie flat for several hours afterward to keep from getting a headache. The lab checks the fluid for leukemia cells or other signs of problems. [hopkinsmedicine.org]

  A headache, low-grade fever, mouth sores or skin rash may accompany the infection. Swollen lymph nodes: Lymph nodes are small, bean-sized structures that contain clusters of lymphocytes. [my.clevelandclinic.org]

• Peripheral Neuropathy

  Peripheral neuropathy – Peripheral neuropathy, or numbness, tingling or pain in the hands and feet, can last months after therapy with agents such as Oncovin. [hopkinsmedicine.org]

  Testing for peripheral neuropathy before and while on levodopa is also very important. Patients should also be regularly monitored for dyskinesia. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

The following are the various diagnostic procedures for detecting leukemia [10]:

• A preliminary physical examination will be carried out for studying the various signs and symptoms of leukemia.
• Blood tests such as complete blood count provide a useful insight for diagnosis of the condition. 
• Bone marrow test forms an important part of the diagnostic procedure. In this a sample of the bone marrow is derived from the hip bone and studied for the presence of leukemia cells.

• Hyperviscosity

  Paraneoplastic syndromes in malignant lymphomas manifest by anemia, hypercalcemia, blood hyperviscosity, cachexia and other less frequent forms. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Waldenström macroglobulinemia has a natural history and therapeutic options similar to CLL, with the exception of hyperviscosity syndrome associated with macroglobulinemia as a result of elevated immunoglobulin M. [cancer.gov]

• Leukocytes Decreased

  Regardless of the treatment instituted, the leukocyte formula should be monitored, and treatment should be suppressed when the number of leukocytes decreases below 3000/mm 3 or when the number of blood platelets decreases below 100000/mm 3 ; antibiotherapy [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

Treating leukemia is a complex process as it would greatly depend on the stage of the disease and the type of leukemia present. Some of the common treatment methods employed for treating the condition are explained below [11]:

• Chemotherapy: It is the method of choice for treating leukemia [11].
• Biological therapy: In this method, therapies are targeted towards making the immune system recognize the cancer cells as invaders and attack them.
• Radiation therapy: Radiation therapy employs high beam radiation to kill the target cells and arrest their growth. 
• Targeted therapy: In this form of therapy, drugs are administered that attack specific component of the leukemia cells thereby preventing their growth and multiplication.
• Stem cell transplant: In this, the affected bone marrow is transplanted with a healthy one. The prognosis of the disease is favorable with this kind of method [12]. Prior to this method, the patient is given chemotherapy in combination with radiation therapy to completely destroy the diseased bone marrow.

Prognosis of the disease condition depends on the type of leukemia and the stage at which the condition was diagnosed. If leukemia is diagnosed in its early stages then the prognosis is favorable with timely initiation of treatment and regular follow up checkups [8].

The factor that triggers the development of leukemia is yet to be figured out. However, a combination of various factors such as environment and heredity are known to play foul. In addition, various types of risk factors such as exposure to chemical compounds such as benzene, tobacco smoking, ionizing radiation and prior treatment with chemotherapy can also predispose an individual to develop leukemia [3] [4].

Leukemia is a widespread problem affecting the male and female population equally. It has been estimated that every year about 13.0 per 100,000 fresh cases of leukemia are diagnosed. Statistics also reveal that there were about 7.0 per 100,000 cases of death due to leukemia every year. Researchers have also established statistical data which state that in the year 2014, there would be 52,380 new cases of leukemia. Of these, 24,090 cases of death due to leukemia would also occur in the same year. Statistical data has also confirmed that leukemia accounts for 4.1% of all cancer deaths. This form of cancer is also widely prevalent amongst the pediatric population [5] [6]. It has been estimated that each year in US about 2500 – 3500 new cases are diagnosed [1].

Leukemia begins with attacking the white blood cells of the body. As a result of this, the infection fighting ability of the white blood cells is greatly diminished making the body more prone to contract infectious diseases. Leukemia also affects the bone marrow as a result of which abnormal cells are produced which fail to function in the normal way. Such sequence of events causes the abnormal cells to affect other body organs such as the liver, eye and the spleen. There are basically 4 types of leukemia, namely: Acute lymphocytic leukemia, acute myelogenous leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia and chronic myeloid leukemia. Other rare types of leukemia are myeloproliferative disorders, hairy cell leukemia and myelodysplastic syndromes [7].

It is practically not possible to prevent leukemia. However, the spread of the disease can be prevented if detected on time and timely initiation of treatment.

There are several forms of leukemia; some which affect the children and some which affect the adult population. Leukemia usually begins by primarily attacking the white blood cells which are essential for warding off infections. But, when the cancer affects the white blood cells, these are no longer capable of safeguarding the body against infections. The underdeveloped white blood cells are known as blasts or leukemia cells [2]. Treatment of leukemia is a complex process that needs to be designed keeping in mind several factors.

Definition

Leukemia is the cancer of the white blood cells that also affects the lymphatic system and the bone marrow. It is a common condition affecting the children as well as the adult population.

Cause

The exact factor that triggers the abnormal development of cells is not clearly understood. However, interplay of environment and genetic factors are known to play foul in causation of leukemia.

Symptoms

Symptoms of leukemia include fatigue, tiredness, unexplained weight loss, fever and chills, frequent nose bleeds, excessive sweating and bone pain along with tenderness.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of leukemia is done by blood tests to determine complete blood count which would give an idea about the white blood cell count. In addition to this, bone marrow test is also done to analyze for the presence of leukemia cells.

Treatment

Treatment of leukemia consists of chemotherapy and radiation therapy which targets the cancer cells and destroys them. In addition, stem cell transplant is also the method of choice wherein the diseased bone marrow is replaced with a healthy one. Patients suffering from leukemia are also given targeted therapy which works by destroying specific components of the leukemia cells.

1. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, et al. Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 2014; 64:83.
2. Rootman J, Gudauskas G. Treatment of ocular leukemia with local chemotherapy. Cancer Treat Rep. Jan 1985;69(1):119-22
3. Kincaid MC, Green WR. Ocular and orbital involvement in leukemia. Surv Ophthalmol. Jan-Feb 1983;27(4):211-32.
4. Buffler PA, Kwan ML, Reynolds P, Urayama KY. Environmental and genetic risk factors for childhood leukemia: appraising the evidence. Cancer Invest 2005; 23:60
5. Siegel R, Ma J, Zou Z, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 2014; 64:9.
6. Parkin DM, Bray F, Ferlay J, Pisani P. Global cancer statistics, 2002. CA Cancer J Clin. Mar-Apr 2005;55(2):74-108. [Medline]. Galton DA. The pathogenesis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Can Med Assoc J 1966; 94:1005.
7. Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Diebold J, et al. World Health Organization classification of neoplastic diseases of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues: report of the Clinical Advisory Committee meeting-Airlie House, Virginia, November 1997. J Clin Oncol 1999; 17:3835.
8. Jonsson OG, Sartain P, Ducore JM, Buchanan GR. Bone pain as an initial symptom of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: association with nearly normal hematologic indexes. J Pediatr 1990; 117:233.
9. Kaufman M, Rubin J, Rai K. Diagnosing and treating chronic lymphocytic leukemia in 2009. Oncology (Williston Park). Nov 15 2009;23(12):1030-7.
10. Harnett AN, Plowman PN. The eye in acute leukaemia. 2. The management of solitary anterior chamber relapse. Radiother Oncol. Nov 1987;10(3):203-7. 
11. Kerty E, Vigander K, Flage T, Brinch L. Ocular findings in allogeneic stem cell transplantation without total body irradiation. Ophthalmology. Jul 1999;106(7):1334-8.
12. Rootman J, Gudauskas G. Treatment of ocular leukemia with local chemotherapy. Cancer Treat Rep. Jan 1985;69(1):119-22.