Meningomyelocele is a congenital anomaly which presents in utero or at birth. At birth, it presents as a midline defect in the posterior aspect of the skin and vertebrae, associated with an outward protrusion of the cord, meninges and other neural components.

Meningomyelocele is commonly associated with Chiari type II malformation, which may result in symptoms of compression of the brainstem and cervical spinal cord including apnea, dysphagia, nystagmus, laryngeal and pharyngeal paralysis, stridor, and upper limb paresthesias. This malformation may also cause cerebellar compression and dysfunction resulting in ataxia.

Hydrocephalus is a common complication of meningomyelocele and it may result in upper limb spasticity, which, in turn, is a complication of numerous ventricular shunting required for its management.

Children with meningomyelocele often present with joint contractures, spinal and lower limb deformities. These may be attributed to intrauterine malpositioning, muscle imbalance, poor posture, progressive neurologic deficits, and reduced joint function. Children with meningomyelocele are also commonly of short stature, attributable to skeletal abnormalities including spinal cord and vertebral abnormalities, lower extremity contracture, and endocrine involvement. The endocrine involvement is primarily due to growth hormone deficiency, which may result from a secondary dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.

• Crying

  Question A 2 month old girl born of non consanguineous marriage presented with hydrocephalus and meningomyelocele diagnosed since birth and excessive crying for 4-5 days. The child had 2 episodes of seizures in last 15 days. [pediatriconcall.com]

  Terminally, she had excessive crying, and died within 1 week of presentation. An autopsy revealed focally infected meningomyelocele with features of Arnold–Chiari II malformation. [casereports.bmj.com]

  The neonate's weight is appropriate for gestational age and has a vigorous cry. He has a good urine stream, clubfeet, and spontaneous flexion and extension at the knees. A sterile dressing has been placed over the defect. [knowledge.statpearls.com]

  Case presentation: A 10-day-old male infant presents with two right lumbar tumors, one that increased in size with crying consistent with a lumbar hernia, and the other a myelomeningocele. [revecuatneurol.com]

  […] or movement is badDribbling urine with crying or movement is bad  If one leg is normal ,normal sphincter will be expectedIf one leg is normal ,normal sphincter will be expected  IntelligenceIntelligence  75-80% normal75-80% normal  MortalityMortality [de.slideshare.net]

• Epilepsy

  Although epilepsy in children with meningomyelocele occurs mainly in those with shunted hydrocephalus, structural cerebral abnormalities other than the shunt may be important causes. [pediatricneurologybriefs.com]

  Other data related to neurological complications have also been indicated, such as: epilepsy, meningitis, VPS changes). [scielo.br]

  Case Report A 47-year-old man was referred from neurology where he was examined for a sudden episode of unconsciousness with convulsions; epilepsy was suspected. [medical-case-reports.imedpub.com]

  Neurol. (1983) [ Pubmed ] Vertebral arch nonfusion and juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Sundqvist, A., Gustafsson, J., Tomson, T. [wikigenes.org]

  If you're taking medication to treat epilepsy, you should consult your GP for advice. You may also need to take a higher dose of folic acid. [nhs.uk]

• Feeding Difficulties

  difficulties Symptoms of meningitis develop, including fever, stiff neck, irritability, and a high-pitched cry Review Date: 12/13/2017 Reviewed By: Kimberly G. [account.allinahealth.org]

  difficulties Symptoms of meningitis develop, including fever, stiff neck, irritability, and a high-pitched cry Prevention Folic acid supplements may help reduce the risk of neural tube defects such as myelomeningocele. [ufhealth.org]

  Call your provider if: A sac or open area is visible on the spine of a newborn infant Your child is late in walking or crawling Symptoms of hydrocephalus develop, including bulging soft spot, irritability, extreme sleepiness, and feeding difficulties [medlineplus.gov]

• High-Pitched Cry

  cry Review Date: 12/13/2017 Reviewed By: Kimberly G. [account.allinahealth.org]

  […] infant The child is late in walking or crawling Symptoms of hydrocephalus develop, including bulging soft spot, irritability, extreme sleepiness, and feeding difficulties Symptoms of meningitis develop, including fever, stiff neck, irritability, and a high-pitched [ufhealth.org]

  […] infant Your child is late in walking or crawling Symptoms of hydrocephalus develop, including bulging soft spot, irritability, extreme sleepiness, and feeding difficulties Symptoms of meningitis develop, including fever, stiff neck, irritability, and a high-pitched [medlineplus.gov]

• Malnutrition

  Prenatal maternal factors such as exposure to alcohol, valproic acid, carbamazepine, or isotretinoin; hyperthermia; malnutrition (especially folate deficiency); diabetes; and obesity all increase the risk of giving birth to a child who has myelomeningocele [pedsinreview.aappublications.org]

  Detailed medical history is important to search for several causative factors such as maternal diabetes, smoking, certain medications, malnutrition, previous affected pregnancy or family history of spina bifida, as well as the exposure to hazardous materials [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Skin Rash

  After the commercial purification process there are small amount of residual proteins that could cause allergy symptoms ranging from mild skin rashes or sneezing to hives, respiratory distress and anaphylactic shock. [hawaii.edu]

• Muscle Weakness

  Characteristics The effects of myelomeningocele, the most serious form of spina bifida, may include muscle weakness or paralysis below the area of the spine where the incomplete closure (or cleft) occurs, loss of sensation below the cleft, and loss of [health.ucdavis.edu]

  Such patients are therefore incontinent of urine and have significant proximal and distal muscle weakness but are nevertheless able to walk independently. [spinabifidasupport.com]

  This can result in muscle weakness and/or paralysis, bowel and bladder problems, excessive fluid on the brain (hydrocephalus), change in positioning of the brain (Chiari Malformation), seizures, and orthopedic conditions (scoliosis, hip problems, and [ortho.wustl.edu]

  Problems may indicate muscle weakness, speech problems, or other potential issues related to the neural tube defect. There isn’t any one cause of spina bifida. Your genetic makeup plays the most significant role. [healthline.com]

• Leg Weakness

  More severe cases can cause leg weakness and paralysis, as well as Hydrocephalus, and the Arnold Chiari malformation. People with MMC often live long lives, especially if the condition is diagnosed and treated early. [cardinalglennon.com]

  These include leg weakness or paralysis, loss of sensation of the legs and feet, bowel, or bladder incontinence, Chiari II malformation (a protrusion of the back of the brain into the spinal column), and hydrocephalus (an imbalance of cerebrospinal fluid [neurosurgery.columbia.edu]

  Symptoms of this condition include:[2][3] Loss of bladder or bowel control Partial or complete lack of sensation Partial or complete paralysis of the legs Weakness of the hips, legs, or feet Some individuals may have additional symptoms. [rarediseases.info.nih.gov]

  These include leg weakness or paralysis, loss of sensation of the legs and feet, bowel or bladder incontinence, Chiari II malformation (a protrusion of the back of the brain into the spinal column) and hydrocephalus (an imbalance of cerebrospinal fluid [columbiaspine.org]

• Incontinence

  Although questionnaire for urinary condition using International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire-Short Form demonstrated that 80% of patients were completely free from urinary incontinence after surgery, more than a half of patients had persistent [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Figure 2 Results of International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire–Short Form (ICIQ-SF) for urinary incontinence. ICIQ-SF demonstrated that 80% of patients were completely free from urinary incontinence after surgery. [nature.com]

  Management of neurogenic fecal incontinence in myelodysplastic children by a modified continent appendiceal stoma and antegrade colonic enema. Urology. 1997;49:758-61. Bannink F, Idro R, van Hove G. [ijsurgery.com]

• Seizure

  Seventeen (21%) had seizures during follow-up ranging from 1.3 to 16 years. Fourteen (17%) had epilepsy and 5 had seizures controlled by anticonvulsant drugs. [pediatricneurologybriefs.com]

  The child had 2 episodes of seizures in last 15 days. [pediatriconcall.com]

  If a drain (shunt) is not implanted, the pressure buildup can cause brain damage, seizures or blindness. Hydrocephalus may occur without spina bifida, but the two conditions often occur together. [health.ucdavis.edu]

  University Neurosurgery, the clinical division of the LSU Health Shreveport Department of Neurosurgery, is committed to providing comprehensive patient care using the most innovative surgical approaches for skull base and aneurysm surgery, seizure surgery [universityneurosurgery.com]

• Myelopathy

  At last follow-up, she had no visible recurrence of the cutaneous lesion and no evidence of neurologic evolution of cervical myelopathy or radiculopathy. [nejm.org]

  Signs and symptoms of cervical myelopathy are the hallmark finding in older children, with upper-extremity weakness and spasticity being the most common finding. [2] The first treatment option to be considered should be cerebrospinal shunt revision because [openanesthesia.org]

  It is usually a result of compressive lesions causing myelopathy or neuropathy. For instance, quadriplegia often arises from cervical lesions. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  When not associated with dermal sinuses, they may occur with progressive compressive myelopathy or with chemical meningitis of acute onset; such compression is caused by the rupture of the cyst and the spread of cholesterol crystals in the CSF. [emedicine.medscape.com]

• Lower Motor Neurone Lesion

  Myelomeningocele in the sacral area can produce a lower motor neuron lesion, resulting in detrusor areflexia. [emedicine.medscape.com]

• Paresis

  In this age group inspiratory stridor from vocal cord paresis is often the most noticeable sign of brainstem dysfunction. Older children present with spinal cord and cerebellar dysfunction. [openanesthesia.org]

  Case contributed by Dr Augusto César Vieira Teixeira Diagnosis certain Diagnosis certain Presentation Patient with a non specific swelling at the back and lower limbs paresis Patient Data Age: 4 Gender: Male From the case: Myelomeningocele MRI Loading [radiopaedia.org]

• Average Intelligence

  In addition intellectual limitations are common in MMC patients, and shunted children with MMC have an average intelligence quotient of 80 [3,4]. [clinicsinsurgery.com]

  Discourse after early-onset hydrocephalus: Core deficits in children of average intelligence. Brain and Language, 61, 309 – 334. Barnes, M.A. & Dennis, M. ( 2001 ). Knowledge-based inferencing after childhood head injury. [cambridge.org]

Laboratory workup, amniocentesis, and prenatal ultrasonography are the main approach considerations to the diagnosis of neural tube defects. Prenatal ultrasonography, however, confirms the diagnosis.

Since neural tube defects predispose to abnormalities in micturition, urinalysis, urine cultures, and blood urea nitrogen are recommended to evaluate kidney function in patients with these disorders. Furthermore, a voiding cystogram and urodynamic evaluation should be employed, in order to assess anatomic and functional abnormalities of the urinary tract.

Serum alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is elevated in 75% of the cases of open spinal cord defects. Samples should be taken in the second trimester.

The standard initial imaging modality to identify the level of the meningomyelocele lesion, after the baby has been delivered, is a plain radiograph. Plain radiographs are also helpful in the evaluation of comorbidities including dysplasias, scoliosis, and hip dislocation. Radiographs are also indicated in the presence of bone pain, because of the frequent occurrence of pathologic fractures in these patients.

3D and 4D ultrasonography are best for identifying the Chiari II malformation, while hydrocephalus can be detected with serial cranial ultrasound scans and CT scans. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides excellent imaging for comparisons and assessment of progression or regression of the disorder.

The standard treatment of neural tube defects includes sac closure, prophylactic antibiotics to forestall meningitis, and insertion of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt. Palliative care is opted for in cases associated with a high risk of mortality including active severe CNS bleeding or infection, irreparable sac, and other severe comorbidities.

Typically, the management of neural tube defects involves concerted efforts of various specialists and it typically centers on neonatal neurosurgery, assessment and management of urinary and bowel function, motor function, and cognitive abilities. Regular catheterizations may be employed to assist urinary function. Routine orthopedic evaluation would include assessment of muscle strength, joint range of motion, and possible pathologies. Continuous occupational and physical therapy are also critical in the management of meningomyelocele. A psychologist or personal trainer is necessary to help the patient cope emotionally and psychologically with the symptoms. Speech therapy may be necessary for patients with dysphagia and speech problems. Orthotics are necessary to assist in the ambulation of the patient.

The surgical closure of meningomyelocele is performed within the first 24-48 hours of neonatal life if there is no CSF leakage; however, in the presence of CSF leakage, closure is done immediately after delivery. For the former case, closure can be delayed for a few more days if the patient's clinical status permits it. This is necessary to help parents and family members properly handle the situation and learn about the condition [8].

In up to 35% of the patients with meningomyelocele, Chiari II malformation could present with complications which require surgery. Such complications include stridor, apnea, aspiration, and vocal cord paralysis. The initial intervention involves control of the hydrocephalus, however, if the status keeps deteriorating, surgical repair of the malformation is opted for. The surgical procedures for the repair of chiari II malformation include occipital craniotomy and upper cervical laminectomy for brainstem and upper cervical decompression.

Furthermore, orthopedic surgical procedures may be necessary for debilitating musculoskeletal abnormalities presenting in this condition. Such procedures aim at improving the quality of life of the patient.

The main problems associated with meningomyelocele are the potential debilitating complications of the disorder including hydrocephalus, difficulty with ambulation and motor functions, orthopedic problems, and a reduction in the quality of life.

Meningomyelocele that is left untreated results in meningitis, hydrocephalus, and sepsis which significantly increases the risk of mortality. In the past, treatment for myelomeningocele was difficult and almost impossible, however, during the past 30 years in the United States, treatment has evolved and advanced; it is presently available in various pediatric centers [5] [6] [7].

Management of meningomyelocele requires a multidisciplinary approach involving a pediatrician, neurologist, pediatric neurosurgeon, orthopedic surgeon, physiotherapist, pediatric urological surgeon, nutritionist, and psychologist.

Genetic and several acquired abnormalities play a critical role in the etiogenesis of meningomyelocele and other neural tube defects. Chromosomal abnormalities including trisomy 13, 18, and 21 have been implicated in the pathogenesis of these neural tube defects. Genetic causes are more common than environmental ones.

Common acquired or environmental causes of meningomyelocele and other neural tube defects include maternal diabetes, maternal age, socioeconomic class, season of conception, maternal alcohol toxicity, maternal use of anticonvulsants, intrauterine hyperthermia, geographic location, maternal folate and zinc deficiencies.

The season of conception affects the pathogenesis of these defects: conceptions which occur in springtime are more likely to be associated with anencephaly and spina bifida in the fetus. Nevertheless, this phenomenon has not been confirmed in studies conducted in the United States.

Generally, neural tube defects are amongst the most common birth defects. The disorder exhibits significant geographical variation, being most prevalent in northern China, and least prevalent in Japan. Among the Caucasian population, the disorder is most prevalent in great Britain. Northern China has an incidence rate of 3.7 cases in 1000 live births. Neural tube defects are also very prevalent in India and among eastern Mediterranean people.

In the United States, between 1970 and 1989, meningomyelocele and other neural tube defects occurred at a rate of 6-13 cases per 10,000 live births. Cases of anencephaly were, however, more than those of spina bifida. Over the length of this period, the proportion of Caucasians with neural tube defects in relation to other ethnicities has been substantially reduced.

The incidence of neural tube defects is higher in the eastern part of the United States than the western areas.

Neural tube defects occur as a result of an interruption in the neurulation process. The process of neural formation occurs in two stages; a primary stage, in which the neural plates elevate and close in towards each other, forming a neural tube, and a secondary stage, that involves further neural development, including the formation of the terminal fibres of the spinal cord. This stage is described as the stage of canalization.

Defects or interruptions in the primary stage of neurulation cause the open neural tube defects, while defects in the secondary neurulation are responsible for closed neural tube defects. Open neural tube defects are those in which all parts of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) are affected, while the closed neural tube defects are localized to the spine. However, cases of closed neural tube defects may occur from disrupted primary neurulation.

Approximately 70% of meningomyelocele cases can be prevented by increasing serum folate levels just before conception and up to the seventh week of gestation, at which time, the neural tube has closed completely. This can lead to a 40% reduction, rather than the expected estimate of 70%, in the incidence of meningomyelocele [9].

Meningomyelocele is a neural tube defect resulting from the failure of closure of the neural tube, which typically begins in the third week of gestation. Meningomyelocele can also be called myelomeningocele and is one of the most common types of neural tube defects with an incidence rate of up to 2 cases per 10,000 live births.

Meningomyelocele and other neural tube defects result from genetic abnormalities or acquired maternal factors including alcohol abuse, use of anticonvulsants, age, and diabetes.

Meningomyelocele presents with a number of comorbidities and complications including motor dysfunctions, vocal cord paralysis, urinary and bowel dysfunctions, skeletal malformations, hydrocephalus, and meningitis.

Treatment of meningomyelocele involves a multidisciplinary approach with concerted inputs from a neurosurgeon, pediatrician, neonatologist, orthopedic surgeon, urologist, physiotherapist, and psychologist. The timing for closure of the open sac depends on the presence of CSF leakage and other neurologic problems requiring urgent surgical intervention. In such cases, surgery is done immediately after the delivery of the baby. However, the prognosis of the condition with surgery is often poor, with the patient living with severe complications.

Chiari malformation II, which is often associated with meningomyelocele, presents with brain stem and upper cervical cord dysfunctions and often requires ventriculoperitoneal shunting because of the ensuing hydrocephalus [1] [2] [3] [4].

Meningomyelocele is an abnormality in children detected at birth and characterised by a protrusion of the spinal cord and the tissues which cover the cord (meninges), due to the incomplete closure of the structures which would form the backbone and the skin over it. This condition can also be called myelomeningocele.

This condition may be caused by abnormalities in the chromosomes. Chromosomes contain genes which code for every structure of the body and the functions of all these structures. Non-genetic factors also cause this condition, and the main factor is a reduced folic acid level in the blood. This may be caused by reduced or lack of intake of folic acid during pregnancy or medications, especially drugs for treating convulsions; these drugs could reduce folic acid levels in the blood. Other causes include diabetes and chronic alcohol use in a pregnant woman.

The disorder occurs in one out of about 800 live births. Furthermore, it is very common in Asia. Babies born with this condition have an opening at their lower back containing a protrusion of the spinal cord. The disorder could present with varying levels of severity. It typically presents with compression of some parts of the spinal cord and brain, causing uncontrollable bowel movements and urination, inability to move the legs, inability to swallow or speak, and problems keeping the eyeballs in place. There are also abnormalities associated with the bones and joints, some of which may require orthopedic surgical procedures to help the patient manage with moving the bones and joints. Hydrocephalus, a term which describes excessive build up of fluid in the brain that causes it to swell, is a very common complication of meningomyelocele.

This condition can be diagnosed during early pregnancy by blood tests that reveal the level of a chemical called alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), which usually rises in this condition. If the blood test is positive, further tests such as an obstetric ultrasound would be needed to confirm the diagnosis.

After diagnosis during early pregnancy, some women may choose to terminate the pregnancy. In those who don't, the babies would require surgery after birth and multiple specialist management. Sometimes, immediate surgery may be necessary to close the opening as soon as the baby is born to prevent infections. Treatment may be lifelong and such patients need to be routinely evaluated by specialists of multiple specialties, in order to assess any improvement or deterioration.

These neural tube defects can all be caused by low blood levels of folic acid, therefore, pregnant women are advised to routinely take folic acid supplements and completely avoid medications which reduce the blood levels of folic acid. Women are also advised to take folic acid supplements even before they get pregnant.

1. Copp AJ, Greene ND. Neural tube defects--disorders of neurulation and related embryonic processes. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Dev Biol. 2013;2(2):213-27.
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8. Meuli M, Moehrlen U. Fetal surgery for myelomeningocele: a critical appraisal. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 2013;23(2):103-9.
9. Rabiu TB, Adeleye AO. Prevention of myelomeningocele: African perspectives. Childs Nerv Syst. 2013;29(9):1533-40.