Renal cell carcinoma is a malignancy originating from the kidney's tubular epithelium. The tumor is characterized by aggressive growth and propensity for metastatic spread. Patients often present with metastatic disease disease either at the time of diagnosis of the primary tumor or even several years after receiving treatment for the tumor.
Presentation
RCC patients tend to remain asymptomatic until advanced stages of the disease. The classic symptom triad of flank pain, hematuria and a palpable abdominal mass is presented by less than 10% of affected individuals [10]. Symptoms associated with mRCC largely depend on the affected organ and involvement of adjacent tissue. As these symptoms are identical to symptoms triggered by other neoplasms affecting those organs, they cannot be ascribed to mRCC unless a histopathological analysis of fine-needle aspirates or biopsy specimens has been obtained.
Both RCC and mRCC may provoke symptoms consistent with paraneoplastic syndrome, and those may precede the onset of symptoms due to local mass effects mediated by the primary tumor and metastases. In this context, constitutive symptoms like fever, night sweats and weight loss may be accompanied by endocrine and electrolyte imbalances. Neoplastic tissue has been shown to release interleukins IL-1 and IL-6 as well as tumor necrosis factor-α, and these have been related to enhanced concentrations of acute phase markers like C-reactive protein. Moreover, tumor cells may release parathyroid hormone-related peptide and renin production by the affected kidneys may be increased. This results in hypercalcemia, possibly associated with fatigue, polyuria, polydipsia, and exsiccosis, nausea and vomiting, cardiac arrhythmia,hypertension and altered sensorium. Tumor cells may produce erythropoietin and provoke erythrocytosis. Polycythemia has also been described in mRCC patients. mRCC may be accompanied by amyloidosis, although its pathogenesis remains unclear.
Resection of a localized primary tumor and complete metastasectomy, in case of metastases, generally relieve symptoms of paraneoplastic syndrome. Otherwise, or upon recurrence of fever, night sweats, and weight loss, a thorough workup is required to detect metastases that may have been overlooked before.
Entire Body System
- Fatigue
The dose of sorafenib was reduced and temporarily discontinued because adverse events, including fatigue and cardiac infarction, occurred. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]
“Axitinib can cause high blood pressure, which is relatively easily managed, and diarrhea and fatigue,” Dr Rini said. [cancertherapyadvisor.com]
- Anemia
In 2014, patient was evaluated for dyspepsia with microcytic anemia and underwent an esophagogastroduodenoscopy and colonoscopy. [hindawi.com]
The patient described in this case did not have any symptoms commonly seen in RCC, such as painless hematuria, weight loss, anorexia, fatigue, or anemia, despite the bulk of his disease. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]
At that point the medical oncologist restaged the patient with a full CT scan—chest, abdomen, and pelvis—with appropriate blood work, and he was deemed to be intermediate risk by MSKCC criteria, based on anemia but with normal calcium, and a performance [targetedonc.com]
- Weight Loss
An 81-year-old South Asian man normally resident in the UK presented with night sweats for over 2 months on a background of weight loss of 4 kg in 6 months. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]
Symptoms typically include: blood in the urine pain on one side of the lower back lump in the back or side weight loss fatigue fever swelling of the ankles night sweats A physical exam and a review of your medical history may prompt further testing to [healthline.com]
In this context, constitutive symptoms like fever, night sweats and weight loss may be accompanied by endocrine and electrolyte imbalances. [symptoma.com]
In the later stages, kidney cancer signs and symptoms may include: Blood in your urine, which may appear pink, red or cola colored Pain in your back or side that doesn't go away Loss of appetite Unexplained weight loss Tiredness Fever, which usually comes [mayoclinic.org]
- Fever
High fevers unresponsive to antimicrobial therapy, cytopenias, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and progressive multiorgan failure led to intubation and intensive care unit stay. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]
Symptoms typically include: blood in the urine pain on one side of the lower back lump in the back or side weight loss fatigue fever swelling of the ankles night sweats A physical exam and a review of your medical history may prompt further testing to [healthline.com]
In this context, constitutive symptoms like fever, night sweats and weight loss may be accompanied by endocrine and electrolyte imbalances. [symptoma.com]
And you may have: A fever that comes and goes A lump in your belly Night sweats, so much that you need to change your clothes or sheets Pain in your back or side that won’t go away Weight loss for no reason You might also get symptoms where the cancer [webmd.com]
The procedure can be painful and cause fevers. The use of arterial embolization prior to radical nephrectomy has been shown to have survival benefit and is not recommended in operable kidney cancers. [emedicinehealth.com]
- Swelling
Preoperatively US of the swelling and head-neck CT scan with 3D rendering ( Figure 2 ). Figure 2: 3D rendering showing dimension and position of the submandibular swelling. [omicsonline.org]
We report the case of a 64-year-old otherwise healthy woman who presented with left facial swelling. Imaging of the neck revealed multiple masses in the salivary and thyroid glands. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]
Back pain Blood in the urine Swelling of the veins around a testicle (varicocele) Flank pain Weight loss Fever Liver dysfunction Elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) Excessive hair growth in females Pale skin Vision problems Exams and Tests [pennstatehershey.adam.com]
Symptoms typically include: blood in the urine pain on one side of the lower back lump in the back or side weight loss fatigue fever swelling of the ankles night sweats A physical exam and a review of your medical history may prompt further testing to [healthline.com]
Call your health care provider if you experience pain or swelling in the stomach area, vomiting blood, or black sticky stools. VOTRIENT may cause lung problems that may lead to death. [us.votrient.com]
Respiratoric
- Cough
We report the case of a 65-year-old man with history of RCC, presented 7 years after nephrectomy, adrenalectomy and lung metastasectomy for his primary tumour, with symptoms of nasal obstruction, postnasal drip, productive cough and pressure sensation [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]
Tell your health care provider right away if you develop a cough that will not go away or have shortness of breath. Reversible posterior leukoencephalopathy syndrome is a condition that can happen while taking VOTRIENT that may cause death. [us.votrient.com]
The medication has stopped Floyd’s chronic cough and the blood that would come up with it. [curetoday.com]
In your lungs, it can give you a cough or trouble breathing. Continued What Can I Do? First, work with your doctor to figure out how to best treat it. [webmd.com]
- Pleural Effusion
Malignant pleural effusions: treatment with tunneled long-term drainage catheters. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 8: 302-307, 2002. 3. Öztür k C. Malign plevral efüzyonlar. In. Plevra Hastalıkları. Gözü O, Köktürk O (eds). [arastirmax.com]
Gastrointestinal
- Nausea
The majority, 68 percent, experienced some adverse effects — fatigue, nausea and diarrhea — but nothing life-threatening. One patient died due to disease progression. [consultqd.clevelandclinic.org]
Tell your health care provider right away if you have yellow eyes or skin, dark urine, tiredness, nausea or vomiting, loss of appetite, pain in the right upper side of your stomach area, or if you bruise easily. [us.votrient.com]
Adverse Effects In the AXIS trial, treatment with axitinib was associated with diarrhea, hypertension, fatigue, decreased appetite, nausea, dysphonia, hand-foot syndrome, decrease in weight, vomiting asthenia, and constipation. [cancertherapyadvisor.com]
However, during the middle of his treatment cycle — he is on the pill for 21 days, then off for a week — Floyd experiences nausea and loss of appetite, loss of energy and diarrhea. [curetoday.com]
This results in hypercalcemia, possibly associated with fatigue, polyuria, polydipsia, and exsiccosis, nausea and vomiting, cardiac arrhythmia,hypertension and altered sensorium. Tumor cells may produce erythropoietin and provoke erythrocytosis. [symptoma.com]
- Vomiting
Call your health care provider if you experience pain or swelling in the stomach area, vomiting blood, or black sticky stools. VOTRIENT may cause lung problems that may lead to death. [us.votrient.com]
Adverse Effects In the AXIS trial, treatment with axitinib was associated with diarrhea, hypertension, fatigue, decreased appetite, nausea, dysphonia, hand-foot syndrome, decrease in weight, vomiting asthenia, and constipation. [cancertherapyadvisor.com]
This results in hypercalcemia, possibly associated with fatigue, polyuria, polydipsia, and exsiccosis, nausea and vomiting, cardiac arrhythmia,hypertension and altered sensorium. Tumor cells may produce erythropoietin and provoke erythrocytosis. [symptoma.com]
Home treatment for nausea or vomiting includes watching for and treating early signs of dehydration, such as having a dry mouth or feeling lightheaded when you stand up. Eating smaller meals may help. [northshore.org]
The side effects of chemotherapy depend on the individual and the dose used, but can include fatigue, risk of infection, nausea and vomiting, hair loss, loss of appetite, and diarrhea. These side effects usually go away after treatment is finished. [cancer.net]
- Loss of Appetite
Tell your health care provider right away if you have yellow eyes or skin, dark urine, tiredness, nausea or vomiting, loss of appetite, pain in the right upper side of your stomach area, or if you bruise easily. [us.votrient.com]
However, during the middle of his treatment cycle — he is on the pill for 21 days, then off for a week — Floyd experiences nausea and loss of appetite, loss of energy and diarrhea. [curetoday.com]
Possible side effects include: feeling and being sick indigestion diarrhoea high blood pressure a sore mouth loss of appetite and weight loss tiredness infertility Nivolumab is given as a drip directly into a vein every 2 weeks. [nhs.uk]
In the later stages, kidney cancer signs and symptoms may include: Blood in your urine, which may appear pink, red or cola colored Pain in your back or side that doesn't go away Loss of appetite Unexplained weight loss Tiredness Fever, which usually comes [mayoclinic.org]
The side effects of chemotherapy depend on the individual and the dose used, but can include fatigue, risk of infection, nausea and vomiting, hair loss, loss of appetite, and diarrhea. These side effects usually go away after treatment is finished. [cancer.net]
- Abdominal Pain
Motzer, MD: This is a 49-year-old male who was previously healthy, and he presented to an emergency room with complaints of abdominal pain. [targetedonc.com]
The patient presented with severe abdominal pain and lower gastrointestinal bleeding with anticoagulation from recent pulmonary embolism. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]
pain and swelling Back pain Blood in the urine Swelling of the veins around a testicle (varicocele) Flank pain Weight loss Fever Liver dysfunction Elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) Excessive hair growth in females Pale skin Vision problems [pennstatehershey.adam.com]
Six years after resection of the primary renal neoplasm, the patient presented with right upper quadrant abdominal pain. Abdominal ultrasonography (USG) showed calculi and a single polypoidal lesion (14.5 × 10 mm) in the fundus of the GB. [sjkdt.org]
pain 20 4 (11–13) (0) 31 4 Dyspnea 22 3 7 1 21 2 Decreased weight 33 2 Not defined Not defined 48 6 Palmer-plantar erthrodysesthesia 50 8 Not defined Not defined 15 0 Constipation 25 (9–23) (0) 37 0 Pruritus 8 0 14 0 6 0 Rash 15 10 17 0 Choueiri et al [jhoonline.biomedcentral.com]
- Constipation
Adverse Effects In the AXIS trial, treatment with axitinib was associated with diarrhea, hypertension, fatigue, decreased appetite, nausea, dysphonia, hand-foot syndrome, decrease in weight, vomiting asthenia, and constipation. [cancertherapyadvisor.com]
Your doctor can help with all kinds of common problems from cancer and its treatments, like constipation, upset stomach, and pain. But only if you say something about them. Check in with your doctor often to get the care you need. Stay active. [webmd.com]
These most common grade 3 and 4 treatment-emergent adverse events from the dual-therapy patient group include constipation (37%), diarrhea (20%), fatigue (14%), and hypertension (14%). [jhoonline.biomedcentral.com]
Rates of grade 3 and 4 AEs were seen in 71% of patients on the combination and described as follows: constipation (37% ), diarrhea (20% ), fatigue (14% ) and hypertension (14% ). [content.iospress.com]
Cardiovascular
- Hypertension
During the treatment with everolimus and lenvatinib combined, 42% of the patients developed hypertension, while 10% of the patients treated with everolimus alone and 48% of the of the lenvatinib only treated patients developed hypertension. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]
A meta-analysis that included data from 10 trials evaluating axitinib showed an overall incidence of all-grade and high hypertension of 40.1% and 13.1%, respectively. 3 Risk for all-grade hypertension with axitinib was significantly higher compared with [cancertherapyadvisor.com]
Musculoskeletal
- Back Pain
[…] and swelling Back pain Blood in the urine Swelling of the veins around a testicle (varicocele) Flank pain Weight loss Fever Liver dysfunction Elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) Excessive hair growth in females Pale skin Vision problems Exams [pennstatehershey.adam.com]
They also may reduce chronic low back pain, joint pain, headaches, and pain from treatments. Before you try a complementary treatment, talk to your doctor about the possible value and potential side effects. [northshore.org]
On April 12 - April 14, 2017, the patient was once again hospitalized on the nephrology section with low back pain and inferior limb pain, the diagnosis of admission being: chronic dorsolombalgia, high blood pressure grade 3, very high risk group, insulin-requiring [medichub.ro]
Signs and symptoms of renal cell cancer may include the following: Hematuria (blood in the urine) Lower back pain or pain in the flank (side or back above the waist) that will not go away Noticeable lump in the flank Weight loss Fatigue (feeling tired [emedicinehealth.com]
Primary symptoms were intractable back pain and/or radicular pain in 16 cases and lower limb weakness, spasticity, or sensory changes due to cord or nerve root compression in five cases (20.8%). [ajnr.org]
Skin
- Night Sweats
An 81-year-old South Asian man normally resident in the UK presented with night sweats for over 2 months on a background of weight loss of 4 kg in 6 months. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]
Symptoms typically include: blood in the urine pain on one side of the lower back lump in the back or side weight loss fatigue fever swelling of the ankles night sweats A physical exam and a review of your medical history may prompt further testing to [healthline.com]
In this context, constitutive symptoms like fever, night sweats and weight loss may be accompanied by endocrine and electrolyte imbalances. [symptoma.com]
And you may have: A fever that comes and goes A lump in your belly Night sweats, so much that you need to change your clothes or sheets Pain in your back or side that won’t go away Weight loss for no reason You might also get symptoms where the cancer [webmd.com]
Contact a health care provider if any of the following symptoms occur: Blood in the urine Pain in the side that will not go away A lump in the side or belly Unexplained fevers Weight loss Night sweats If any unexplained symptoms last more than a few days [emedicinehealth.com]
Urogenital
- Hematuria
The patient described in this case did not have any symptoms commonly seen in RCC, such as painless hematuria, weight loss, anorexia, fatigue, or anemia, despite the bulk of his disease. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]
They usually occur in 50-70-year old patients and macroscopic hematuria occurs in 60% of the cases. [radiopaedia.org]
A primary renal tumor can be treated curatively, preventing secondary complications, such as hematuria. [thieme-connect.com]
The most common clinical manifestations are hematuria, hypertension, lumbar pain, asthenia or signs of distant metastases. Also, renal cancer shows resistance to the classical cytotoxic agents. [medichub.ro]
The classic symptom triad of flank pain, hematuria and a palpable abdominal mass is presented by less than 10% of affected individuals. Symptoms associated with mRCC largely depend on the affected organ and involvement of adjacent tissue. [symptoma.com]
- Flank Pain
[…] and swelling Back pain Blood in the urine Swelling of the veins around a testicle (varicocele) Flank pain Weight loss Fever Liver dysfunction Elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) Excessive hair growth in females Pale skin Vision problems Exams [pennstatehershey.adam.com]
The classic symptom triad of flank pain, hematuria and a palpable abdominal mass is presented by less than 10% of affected individuals. Symptoms associated with mRCC largely depend on the affected organ and involvement of adjacent tissue. [symptoma.com]
Risk factors cigarette smoking 2 dialysis-related cystic disease 2 obesity treatment with cyclophosphamide (chemotherapy agent) 14 hypertension 26 Presentation is classically described as the triad of: macroscopic hematuria: 60% flank pain: 40% palpable [radiopaedia.org]
Case History A 56-year-old woman came to our clinic with gross hematuria and left flank pain. Computed tomographic (CT) scan showed a large inhomogeneous mass arising from the left kidney for which she underwent open radical nephrectomy. [gotoper.com]
Signs and symptoms of renal cell cancer may include the following: Hematuria (blood in the urine) Lower back pain or pain in the flank (side or back above the waist) that will not go away Noticeable lump in the flank Weight loss Fatigue (feeling tired [emedicinehealth.com]
- Polyuria
This results in hypercalcemia, possibly associated with fatigue, polyuria, polydipsia, and exsiccosis, nausea and vomiting, cardiac arrhythmia,hypertension and altered sensorium. Tumor cells may produce erythropoietin and provoke erythrocytosis. [symptoma.com]
- Macroscopic Hematuria
They usually occur in 50-70-year old patients and macroscopic hematuria occurs in 60% of the cases. [radiopaedia.org]
Workup
As has been mentioned above, RCC does not necessarily provoke clinical symptoms until advanced stages of the disease and the formation of metastases. Nevertheless, RCC may be detected during early stages, incidentally in patients undergoing routine imaging procedures. Due to the tumor's propensity for metastatic spread, diagnostic measures should be taken to rule out the presence of mRCC in these patients. For this computed tomography scans of the thoracic cavity are usually carried out. This technique allows for the visualization of lung metastases and enlarged mediastinal lymph nodes. Similarly, abdomen and pelvis are examined. Here, spread to regional lymph nodes and to hepatic tissue may be observed. Neuroimaging and bone scans are not routinely performed unless clinical symptoms suggest metastases to the brain/bones. With regards to the latter, 18F-NaF-positron emission tomography/computed tomography has recently been proven significantly more sensitive than 99mTc-MDP bone scintigraphy [11]. Essentially, these same techniques are employed to assess the extension of mRCC. Additionally, tumor thrombi may be visualized using sonography or magnetic resonance imaging. As is the case with non-metastatic RCC, confirmation of the tumor type requires histopathological analyses with fine-needle aspirates or biopsy samples.
A thorough physical examination as well as laboratory analyses of blood samples are recommended to identify hematological and biochemical anomalies consistent with paraneoplastic syndrome. Hypercalcemia, hypertension and thromboembolism may contribute to mRCC-related morbidity and may thus require additional, symptomatic therapy. Urine sample analysis may reveal signs of urinary tract infection or hemorrhages.
X-Ray
- Multiple Pulmonary Nodules
Multiple pulmonary nodules as described. Figure 5. Axial HASTE image showing apical and distal lateral involvement of the myocardium with the mass as well as juxtaposed precordial ECG leads representing ST-segment changes as they relate to the mass. [scmr.org]
Serum
- Erythrocytosis
Tumor cells may produce erythropoietin and provoke erythrocytosis. Polycythemia has also been described in mRCC patients. mRCC may be accompanied by amyloidosis, although its pathogenesis remains unclear. [symptoma.com]
[…] other ailments.[9] Other signs and symptom may include haematuria;[8] loin pain;[8] abdominal mass;[9] malaise, which is a general feeling of unwellness;[9] weight loss and/or loss of appetite;[10] anaemia resulting from depression of erythropoietin;[8] erythrocytosis [en.wikipedia.org]
- Hypoglycemia
One patient experienced dose limiting toxicity (DLT) at dose level 3 (grade 4 hypoglycemia). Maximum tolerated dose was not reached with a recommended dose of 36 Gy/3 having a probability of DLT of 11%. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]
Pleura
- Pleural Effusion
Malignant pleural effusions: treatment with tunneled long-term drainage catheters. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 8: 302-307, 2002. 3. Öztür k C. Malign plevral efüzyonlar. In. Plevra Hastalıkları. Gözü O, Köktürk O (eds). [arastirmax.com]
Treatment
While partial or total nephrectomy is the treatment of choice for patients diagnosed with non-metastatic RCC, this procedure is not generally recommended for individuals suffering from mRCC. Here, systemic therapy preceded by cytoreductive nephrectomy or followed by resection of any residual tumors should be considered. There are no published guidelines and thus, the choice of an appropriate approach to treatment should be based on the number, location and resectability of metastases as well as on the patient's general condition [12].
With regards to systemic therapy, mRCC are usually resistant to cytotoxic chemotherapy, and cytokines IL-2 and interferon-α have been the mainstays of mRCC treatment for about two decades. Although use of these drugs has been associated with prolonging median survival times, response rates have remained below 20% [13]. Nowadays, monotherapy with IL-2 or interferon-α is no longer recommended for mRCC treatment, unless patient has pulmonary mRCC, clear cell subtype. [10].
More recently, kinase inhibitors axitinib, pazopanib, sorafenib, sunitinib, everolimus, lenvatinib plus everolimus and temsirolimus as well as bevacizumab plus interferon have been approved for mRCC treatment. These compounds are used for targeted cancer therapy if other therapeutic regimens fail to induce a satisfactory response. Sequential application of several compounds has repeatedly been carried out, and the interested reader is referred to an excellent review published recently.[14]. Similarly, the European Association of Urology emphasizes the need for sequential treatment due to insufficient efficacy of monotherapies and reduced tolerability of combined therapy. In general, treatment recommendations are based on prior risk assessment and determination of the histological subtype of RCC. Current guidelines may be revised elsewhere [10], but are likely to be updated in the near future.
Standard therapies are indicated to relieve symptoms associated with paraneoplastic syndrome.
Regular follow-ups are indispensable for an early diagnosis of recurrence.
Prognosis
Despite considerable advances in mRCC therapy, the disease is still associated with high morbidity and mortality. In 2003, median survival times of less than one year have been reported for mRCC patients [8]. According to that same study, less than 20% of affected individuals remained alive two years after diagnosis. However, the outcome varies depending on the organ affected by metastatic spread of RCC and on the resectability of tumors that don't respond to other therapeutic regimens. In this context, complete metastasectomy may increase median survival times to almost five years [9]. Renewed tumor growth is likely after incomplete resection of mRCC and while patients with recurrent pulmonary metastases are often able to undergo another surgery, this does not apply to those suffering from bone metastases [1]. Furthermore, survival times of patients diagnosed with clear cell carcinoma are shorter than those of individuals suffering from papillary and chromophobic neoplasms [3]. To summarize, RCC and mRCC account for about 100,000 deaths each year [4].
Etiology
Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) originates from proximal renal tubular epithelium. The etiology of the tumor is still largely unknown, but a series of risk factors have been identified [2]:
- Cigarette smoking
- Western-style diet
- Overweight/obesity
- Lack of exercise
- Diabetes mellitus
- Hypertension
- Medical history of urinary tract infection
- In women, parity and oophorectomy
- Occupational and environmental exposure to chloroacetate, trichloroethylene, vinyl chloride
- Mutations of genes encoding for glutathione S-transferases
- Von Hippel–Lindau Disease, Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome
Some of these factors are mutually dependent, e.g., people adhering to a Western-style diet may be more prone to obesity. Evidence regarding the etiological role of gene variants is scarce, but patients carrying certain gene defects may be more susceptible to RCC after exposure to carcinogenic agents. To date, it is not known whether individual risk factors predispose for certain subtypes of RCC, namely clear cell, papillary, chromophobic and collecting duct RCC. Clear cell RCC are associated with a worse prognosis than papillary and chromophobic RCC, and this fact may be due to an increased propensity for metastatic spread in the former [3].
Epidemiology
RCC accounts for more than 90% of kidney tumors and approximately 3% of malignancies detected in adult patients [4]. The worldwide incidence of RCC has been estimated to 209,000 in 2006, while more than 300,000 new cases have been diagnosed in 2012 [5]. Although these values do not necessarily indicate a drastic increase in case numbers - disagreements may merely be owing to methodological differences - worldwide incidence rates have been reported to have increased by up to 3% per decade [4]. Higher incidence rates in developed countries may be ascribed to the aforementioned risk factors being more prevalent in the respective geographical regions [5]. People of all races and both genders may develop mRCC, although men are affected about twice as often as women. The disease is most commonly diagnosed in patients aged 40-60 years. Development of mRCC by young patients is often related to hereditary disorders predisposing for tumor growth.
Pathophysiology
About a fourth of affected individuals present with metastatic renal cancer at the time of diagnosis.Distant metastases are most commonly located in the lungs (in more than 50% of mRCC cases), bones and liver (each more than 30%), and brain (about 5% of mRCC). Furthermore, mRCC may affect adrenal glands,thyroid, pancreas, skin and spinal cord as well as other tissues. These values imply that majority of mRCC patients suffer from multiple sites of mRCC. In fact, solitary metastases are encountered in only 5% of individuals diagnosed with mRCC [4].
RCC tumor cells may spread through blood vessels - primarily through renal veins and inferior vena cava - as well as the lymphatic system. Tumor thrombi may form within those vessels and in fact, such complications may be observed in up to 10% of mRCC patients [6]. mRCC have been shown to invade venous walls, although case reports on metastatic spread to venous vessels are rare. Nevertheless, tumor thrombi constitute reservoirs of tumor cells that may induce recurrence after treatment of mRCC. Administration of sunitinib may further increase the likelihood of thromboembolic events [7].
Prevention
Because smoking is a major risk factor for kidney cancer and mRCC, patients should be advised to stop tobacco consumption. Additionally, adherence to a healthy diet lowers the individual risk of overweight/obesity and related pathologies like diabetes mellitus and hypertension. If dietary adjustments are combined with regular exercise, patients may not only prevent renal neoplasms, but also a wide variety of other disease entities. Exposure to carcinogens should be reduced as much as possible, although evidence regarding a direct correlation between such substances and mRCC has not yet been provided.
People diagnosed with von Hippel-Lindau disease or other disorders known to predispose for tumor growth should be offered regular examinations. This may help to detect RCC in the early stages prior to metastatic spread.
Summary
Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the most common type of malignant tumor affecting the kidneys. RCC accounts for about 3% of malignancies diagnosed in adult patients and it has been estimated that more than 200,000 people develop RCC each year. About half of those patients develop metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC). This condition may either be diagnosed at the time of detection of the primary tumor or at any time later, possibly after an apparently successful treatment of kidney cancer [1]. RCC most commonly metastasizes to regional lymph nodes, lungs, bones, liver and adrenal glands, but occasional metastasis to other organs has also been reported. While bone and brain metastases usually provoke clinical symptoms, this does not apply to the primary tumor, lymph node or pulmonary metastases. Patients suffering from RCC remain asymptomatic until advanced stages of the disease and the initial spread to lymph nodes or lungs may not be noted either. Consequently, wide-spread mRCC is more commonly detected than solitary metastases, and this condition negatively affects the patient's response to therapy, the resectability of tumor tissue and the associated prognosis.
Patient Information
Renal cell carcinoma is the most common malignancy originating from the kidney's tubular epithelium. The tumor is characterized by aggressive growth and propensity for metastatic spread. Additionally, patients do not typically develop any symptoms until advanced stages of the disease and thus, many suffer from metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) at the time of diagnosis. mRCC most commonly affects lymph nodes, lungs, bones, liver and brain, but may also be encountered in other organs. While non-metastatic tumors may be resected, surgical removal of tumor tissue is a major challenge if multiple organs are compromised. Consequently, mRCC patients often have to undergo systemic therapy. The prognosis of an individual patient depends on a variety of factors, namely on the organ(s) compromised by mRCC, the resectability of tumors that do not respond to other therapeutic regimens and on the tumor's histopathological properties. Recently, several compounds have been approved for mRCC treatment, and they may prolong survival times.
References
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- Loh-Doyle JC, Patil MB, Daneshmand S. Renal cell carcinoma with inferior vena cava tumor thrombus and metastatic caval wall invasion. Urology. 2012; 79(2):e6-8.
- Lonergan MT, Kellehar F, McDermott R, Collins R. Ischaemic stroke in a patient on sunitinib. BMJ Case Rep. 2010; 2010.
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- Ljungberg B, Bensalah K, Canfield S, et al. EAU guidelines on renal cell carcinoma: 2014 update. Eur Urol. 2015; 67(5):913-924.
- Gerety EL, Lawrence EM, Wason J, et al. Prospective study evaluating the relative sensitivity of 18F-NaF PET/CT for detecting skeletal metastases from renal cell carcinoma in comparison to multidetector CT and 99mTc-MDP bone scintigraphy, using an adaptive trial design. Ann Oncol. 2015; 26(10):2113-2118.
- Swanson DA. Surgery for metastases of renal cell carcinoma. Scand J Surg. 2004; 93(2):150-155.
- Curtis SA, Cohen JV, Kluger HM. Evolving Immunotherapy Approaches for Renal Cell Carcinoma. Curr Oncol Rep. 2016; 18(9):57.
- Albiges L, Choueiri T, Escudier B, et al. A systematic review of sequencing and combinations of systemic therapy in metastatic renal cancer. Eur Urol. 2015; 67(1):100-110.