Migraine occurs in two forms. The first type is a migraine with an aura called classic migraine and the second form is a migraine without an aura called common migraine.

In the classic form of migraine, there is a phase of aura just before the headache appears. The most common aura observed is a visual aura. Patient reports of a temporary loss of vision partly or completely, flashes of light, objects appear to move, or shake. The other forms include difficulty in speaking, food cravings, getting an odd smell. Sometimes there is numbness starting from the hands and spreading upwards towards arms and gradually involving face, lips and tongue. These auras last for a few minutes before the headache appears.

The migraine without an aura presents with a unilateral or bilateral pain in head, usually beginning on the frontal or temporal side and spreading throughout the head [5]. The pain is usually pulsating or throbbing. The pain starts gradually and then becomes worse within 2 to 12 hours. Along with the head pain, symptoms such as severe nausea, vomiting, photosensitivity, blurriness of vision and sweating are also accompanied [6].

• Fatigue

  Adverse events included paresthesia, fatigue, nausea, and anorexia. More adverse effects occurred with the 200 mg per day dosage than with 100 mg per day. 14, 15 Comparative studies with other prophylactic agents have not been conducted. [aafp.org]

  Symptoms of postdrome include fatigue, body aches, trouble concentrating, dizziness and sensitivity to light. [americanmigrainefoundation.org]

  So, too, are depression, fatigue, and anxiety. Headache resolution phase. Pain lessens during this phase. But it may be replaced with fatigue, irritability, and trouble concentrating. Some people feel refreshed after an attack, while others do not. [urmc.rochester.edu]

  However, the pathophysiological concept behind this term is not undisputed and typical migraine premonitory symptoms such as fatigue and yawning, but also a typical association of attacks to circadian and menstrual cycles, all make the hypothalamus a [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Sensitivity to light and motion is common, as are depression, fatigue, and anxiety. Headache resolution phase. Pain lessens during this phase, but may be replaced with fatigue, irritability, and difficulty concentrating. [columbianeurology.org]

• Pallor

  Symptoms include abdominal pain without a gastrointestinal cause (may last up to 72 hours), nausea, vomiting, and flushing or paleness (pallor). Children who have abdominal migraine often develop typical migraine as they age. [healthcommunities.com]

  The prodrome can consist of yawning, fluid retention, pallor, nausea, light sensitivity, or mood changes, including sadness or irritability. [britannica.com]

  Sensitivity to light, noise and odors Nausea and vomiting, stomach upset, abdominal pain Loss of appetite Feeling very warm (sweating) or cold (chills) Pale color (pallor) Feeling tired Dizziness Blurred vision Tender scalp Diarrhea (rare) Fever (rare [my.clevelandclinic.org]

• Nasal Discharge

  Headache associated with acute sinusitis can occur but is regarded as being relatively rare. 3, 5 - 8 Patients with this presentation most commonly have other clinical manifestations of sinusitis such as purulent nasal discharge and pathologic radiographic [doi.org]

  Thick nasal discharge, congestion, and fever pinpoint the problem to the sinuses. When the acute infection resolves, the pain disappears. Sinusitis is not a common cause of chronic or recurrent headaches. Ice cream headaches. [health.harvard.edu]

• Nausea

  Abstract Nausea and vomiting are a frequent accompaniment of migraine and anti-nausea medications are frequently used in its management. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  For example, one patient might have mild unilateral headache with nausea and none of the other symptoms, and another might have a severe throbbing bilateral headache without nausea but with light and sound sensitivity. [britannica.com]

  Treating nausea and preventing vomiting If you have nausea without vomiting, your doctor may suggest medication to ease nausea called anti-nausea or antiemetic drugs. In this case, the antiemetic can help prevent vomiting and improve the nausea. [healthline.com]

• Vomiting

  Nausea, vomiting, and anorexia of migraine may lead to mild to moderate thiamine deficiency and WE. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Treating nausea and preventing vomiting If you have nausea without vomiting, your doctor may suggest medication to ease nausea called anti-nausea or antiemetic drugs. In this case, the antiemetic can help prevent vomiting and improve the nausea. [healthline.com]

• Abdominal Pain

  Long term follow up of children with recurrent abdominal pain: definition of recurrent abdominal pain was not applied. BMJ 1998; 317: 682–3 PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar 15. Dodge JA. Recurrent abdominal pain in children. [doi.org]

  Background and objectives Abdominal pain is a well-known headache-associated symptom in migraine in children, but rarely in adults. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Although not common, the most prevalent migraine equivalent is “abdominal migraine”, which is characterized by recurrent episodes of vomiting and abdominal pain without headache. [headaches.org]

• Diarrhea

  When you're ill, be sure to continue drinking fluids, and get additional fluids if you have a fever or are vomiting or have diarrhea. Call your doctor for help with vomiting or diarrhea if necessary. [healthcentral.com]

  Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile -associated diarrhea in adults and children. [dx.doi.org]

  Signs and Symptoms Diagnosis Treatment Signs and symptoms of migraine headaches include: Abnormal body sensations, called paresthesias, such as tingling, numbing or prickling Diarrhea Dizziness or vertigo Nausea and vomiting Scalp tenderness Sensitivity [ucsfhealth.org]

  Tell your doctor if any of these symptoms are severe or do not go away: flushing tingling feeling feeling warm or cold drowsiness tiredness weakness dizziness upset stomach diarrhea nausea muscle cramps Some side effects can be serious. [medlineplus.gov]

  Historically, people have used feverfew for fevers, headaches, constipation, diarrhea, difficulty in labor, and dizziness. [nccih.nih.gov]

• Chronic Abdominal Pain

  Why do children have chronic abdominal pain, and what happens to them when they grow up: population based cohort study. BMJ 1998; 316: 1196–200 PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar 14. Abu-Arafeh I. [doi.org]

• Neck Pain

  BACKGROUND: Migraineurs have a high prevalence of neck pain prior to or during headache attacks. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  If this is the case, the goal of the physiotherapy will be to reduce the amount of pain in the joints, muscles, and nerves of the neck, so that less pain is referred to the head. [thephysiocompany.com]

  Compared with placebo, botulinum toxin A was associated with a greater frequency of blepharoptosis, skin tightness, paresthesias, neck stiffness, muscle weakness, and neck pain. [dx.doi.org]

• Photophobia

  At 2 h postdose, DFN-11 was also significantly superior to placebo for freedom from photophobia (P = 0.0056) and phonophobia (P = 0.0167). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Photophobia Specialty Neurology Photophobia is a symptom of abnormal intolerance to visual perception of light.[1] As a medical symptom, photophobia is not a morbid fear or phobia, but an experience of discomfort or pain to the eyes due to light exposure [en.wikipedia.org]

  Nausea, photophobia, and phonophobia were rated using a 4-point scale (0 indicates none; 1, mild; 2, moderate; and 3, severe). [archinte.jamanetwork.com]

• Blurred Vision

  Throbbing, pulsating pain Light sensitivity Sound sensitivity Nausea Pain on one side Vision changes, blurred vision Aura Vomiting Aura Visual phenomena, such as seeing various shapes, bright spots or flashes of light Vision loss Pins and needles sensations [thesun.ie]

  Migraines often come with side effects like nausea and blurred vision, and they often affect just one side of the head. The word comes from the Greek hemi-, "half" and kranion, "skull." [vocabulary.com]

  Temporary loss of vision in one eye (normally the same eye each time) Blurry vision - or blurred vision in one eye Flashing lights, squiggly patterns or blind spots across your field of vision A headache before, during or after you experience vision loss [specsavers.ie]

  The effect of botulinum toxin may affect areas away from the injection site and cause serious symptoms including: loss of strength and all-over muscle weakness, double vision, blurred vision and drooping eyelids, hoarseness or change or loss of voice, [botoxchronicmigraine.com]

• Scotoma

  Photopsia, fortification spectra, and the slow propagation of a scintillating scotoma across the visual field are typical diagnostic features of the visual aura of migraine. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  The experiments described here were performed when the phenomena which characterize the onset of an attack, namely, scotomas, blurring of vision, paresthesias and aphasia, had already passed and had been supplanted by headache. [archneurpsyc.jamanetwork.com]

• Eye Pain

  Some observations on headache and eye pain in a group of schoolchildren. Br Med J. 1956 May 19; 1 (4976):1138–1141. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] KRAYENBUHL H, HEYCK H. The prophylactic treatment of migraine. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Eye pain, which is different from sensitivity to light, is not a common component of migraine. If eye pain is persistent, or if eye pain is present and accompanied by blurred vision or loss of vision, then prompt evaluation is recommended. [medicinenet.com]

• Diplopia

  We encountered a 48-year-old woman who had diplopia and right ptosis. The administration of prednisolone led to the immediate improvement of her oculomotor palsy, but residual mydriasis remained. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] geometric forms across the visual field … — Natalie Angier b : a condition that is a variant form of the typical migraine but in which headache is absent or not a prominent symptom: (1) : a condition in which an aura involving visual disturbances (such as diplopia [merriam-webster.com]

  The following signs (what doctors find) or symptoms (what patients report) are reasons for concern: Headaches associated with other neurological (relating to the brain, spinal cord, or nerves) signs or symptoms (for example, diplopia [seeing double], [emedicinehealth.com]

  […] language problems problems moving or weakness, which may last up to 72 hours brainstem symptoms, which includes: difficulty talking or dysarthria (unclear speech) vertigo (a spinning feeling) tinnitus or ringing in the ears hypacusis (problems hearing) diplopia [healthline.com]

• Tenderness of the Scalp

  People may also experience tenderness of the scalp, neck and shoulder muscles, the Mayo Clinic outlines. Headaches are classified into two categories: episodic and chronic. Episodic tension headaches can last anywhere from 30 minutes to a week. [globalnews.ca]

  […] of the scalp may occur as can neck stiffness.[41] Associated symptoms are less common in the elderly.[42] Rarely, an aura occurs without a subsequent headache.[32] This is known as an acephalgic migraine or silent migraine; however, it is difficult to [en.wikipedia.org]

• Facial Numbness

  Patients may also experience nausea, vomiting, anorexia, neck pain, dizziness, changes in hearing, light sensitivity, difficulty concentrating, facial numbness or weakness and other symptoms. [migrainepal.com]

• Euphoria

  Prodrome One or two days before a migraine, you might notice subtle changes that warn of an upcoming migraine, including: Constipation Mood changes, from depression to euphoria Food cravings Neck stiffness Increased thirst and urination Frequent yawning [mayoclinic.org]

• Mood Swings

  The results are a variety of symptoms that take their toll on your life including inability to focus, mood swings and throbbing pain. [braincoretherapy.com]

  They have early symptoms like appetite, unexplained mood swings, uncontrolled yawning, fluid retention, and increased urination. Aura If you have this phase, you can see flashing or shiny lights or zigzag lines. [marham.pk]

  These include mood swings, food cravings and stiffness of the neck. Aura phase: Auras refer to sensory disturbances that occur before or during a migraine. [pennmedicine.org]

  Some people also experience symptoms like nausea and vomiting during migraine attacks, disturbances in sensations, lack of coordination, trouble sleeping, and mood swings. [draxe.com]

• Headache

  […] in Tension Headaches Migraine Headaches Symptoms of Migraine Headaches Causes of Migraine Headaches Triggers of Migraine Headaches Trigger Points and Migraine Headaches Other Types of Migraines Cluster Headaches Symptoms of Cluster Headaches Causes and [triggerpointrelief.com]

  Symptoms of Cluster Headache Cluster headache consists of severe headaches on one side of the head. [americanmigrainefoundation.org]

  […] or migrainous headache. [doi.org]

  The term cluster headache should be used carefully as sometimes people will refer to their headaches as “cluster headaches” because they have headaches that occur in “clusters”, meaning headaches occurring back to back over subsequent days or headaches [web.archive.org]

  Headache Classification Subcommittee of the International Headache Society The international classification of headache disorders: 2nd edn. Cephalalgia 2004 ; 24(Suppl. 1): 9 – 160. Google Scholar | Medline 11. [dx.doi.org]

• Aura

  The two major subtypes are common migraine (without aura) and classic migraine (with aura or neurological symptoms). (international classification of headache disorders, 2nd ed. [icd9data.com]

  They do not differ from the other auras (even when their duration extends to 2 and/or 4 h) with the exception of a higher number of non-VS. KEYWORDS: Duration; Features; Headache; Migraine with aura; Prolonged Aura [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Sensory auras rarely occur alone and usually follow visual auras. The headache either begins before the end of the aura or within an hour of the end and has the same features as migraine without aura (above). [patient.info]

• Stroke

  […] haemorrhagic stroke Chang 1999 (Europe) w13 291 cases, 736 controls Women (20-44) Any, migraine with and without aura Ischaemic stroke, haemorrhagic stroke, total stroke Donaghy 2002 (Europe) w14 86 cases, 214 controls Women (20-44) Migraine with and [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Stroke 2004, 35 :1574–1578. PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar 27. Milhaud D, Bogousslavsky J, van Melle G, Liot P: Ischemic stroke and active migraine. Neurology 2001, 57 :1805–1811. PubMed Google Scholar 28. [dx.doi.org]

• Dizziness

  Author information 1 Balance Disorders and Ataxia Service, The Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital, Melbourne, Australia; Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, Australia; Dizzy Day Clinic, Melbourne, Australia. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  The figure above shows the distribution of migraine with dizziness in a subset of patients from the dizziness practice of the author. [dizziness-and-balance.com]

  A vestibular migraine can cause vertigo, dizziness, nausea and vomiting with or without the throbbing headache that is typical of most migraines. [hopkinsmedicine.org]

• Irritability

  Migraine and Irritable Bowel Syndrome Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a functional bowel disorder characterized by abdominal pain, bloating, discomfort, and marked changes in bowel habits as described in the ROME III criteria ( 34 ). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Side effects can include nausea, digestive problems, and bloating; if the fresh leaves are chewed, sores and irritation of the mouth may occur. [nccih.nih.gov]

  Childhood recurrent abdominal pain and subsequent adult irritable bowel syndrome. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1999; 20: 318–9 PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar 27. Burke P, Elliott M, Fleissner R. [doi.org]

Migraine is diagnosed clinically [9]. Blood tests are not usually helpful. An MRI is only advised in cases where the auras are prolonged and persistent or in cases of post traumatic migraine. MRI detects white mater abnormalities.

Acute attacks are treated with drugs such as aspirin, acetaminophen or NSAIDs such as ibuprofen. Other sets of drugs include class of triptans like zolmitriptan, almotriptan and frovatriptan. Certain ergot derivatives such as ergotamine and tartrate also help in treating migraine. They are contraindicated in patients with underlying heart disease or high blood pressure.

The acute treatment lasts for maximum 2 to 3 days per week. For nausea or vomiting, nasal sprays, rectal or parenteral forms of medications are used. In case of rebound headaches, opioid combinations, butalbital and butorphanol nasal sprays and combinations are used [4] [6].

The prognosis of migraine is variable and is poorly studied. The long term prognosis studied of a recent population showed 10% complete remission and 84% of partial remission. It was also found that the remission occurs as the age progresses and psychological makeup of the individual highly influences the persistence of the migraine with regards to its frequency and intensity [4].

Though the exact cause for migraine remains unknown, there are certain theories postulated as its probable causes. The most common factor thought to initiate migraine is a complex dysfunction within the central nervous system. The neurotransmitter called serotonin is an important factor causing this dysfunction. It was observed that patients with migraine have significantly low levels of serotonin in their brains. Also, studies confirm that people on antidepressants tend to have a rise in serotonin levels which reduces the frequency of migraine.

Another factor is melatonin. Melatonin is an active metabolite of serotonin. Deficiency of this metabolite triggers migraines. A genetic link confirms the inheritance of the disease. It has been confirmed that individuals having a DNA variant on chromosome 8 between genes called PGCP and MTDH/AEG-1 has been related to carry a greater risk of migraine. The estimated theory for the pathogenesis is that a neurotransmitter called glutamate regulated by the DNA variant gets accumulated in the brain resulting into migraine.

Finally, the trigger factors which contribute to the cause of these attacks are dietary factors which include irregular meals, fasting for long hours, having cheese, chocolates, caffeine, foods containing an ingredient called tyramine, and certain citrus fruits.

Environmental factors include loud noises, strong smell exposure, direct exposure to glaring lights or VDU screens, red wine, head trauma, motion sickness, weather changes, cold stimulus such as ice creams and smoke. Psychological factors include excess stress, anxiety, depression, and lack of sleep. Certain medications linked with migraine triggers include oral contraceptive pills [1].

Migraine also affects women in large proportion suggesting a hormonal link. The drop in estrogen level at the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle appears to be the likely trigger to migraine.

The average prevalence of migraine in a year is about 18% in women and 6% in males. Statistics reveal that the age in which migraine attacks are commonly observed is between 25 to 50 years. Attacks before the age of 20 years are accounted to be 50% and that above 50 years are barely 2%.

Individuals with a positive family history are at a greater risk of suffering from migraine, its incidence being 70%. Lifetime prevalence accounts to 20% in females and 8% in males. In the United States, the prevalence among the low income groups is more than those with a high income. It is common amongst the Canadians, fair among the African Americans and lowest among the Asian Americans [2].

During the twentieth century, vascular dysregulation was believed to result in migraine. According to this hypothesis, transient vasoconstriction of the blood vessels resulted into aura, preceding migraine and the actual pain resulted due to rebound vasodilatation. This hypothesis had evidence based on certain vasodilating drugs such as nitroglycerin, which caused pain and vasoconstrictor drugs like ergotamine which relieved the attack.

Currently, neuronal dysfunction is considered as the most possible primary factor in the pathophysiology of migraine. This includes activation of trigeminovascular system, cortical spreading depression and neuronal sensitization.

Activation of trigeminovascular system: It involves sensory neurons from the trigeminal ganglion and upper cervical dorsal roots. These innervate the dural vascular structures such as the Dura mater and cerebral vessels [3]. These nerve fibers then ascend from the trigeminal nucleus to the sensory cortex via the thalamus. Thereafter, the pain occurs in the regions supplied by the trigeminal nerve.

Cortical spreading depression: This self-propagated wave spreads slowly across the entire span of the cerebral cortex reducing the bionueronal activity. It leads to inflammatory changes by activating the neurons in the trigeminal nucleus caudalis. This produces headache via the reflex actions of the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Neuronal sensitization: This is a process in which the neurons become responsive to both nociceptive and non-nociceptive stimulation. Pain is caused due to peripheral sensitization in the primary afferent neuron and central sensitization of the higher order neurons of the spinal cord [4].

There are some medicines which help prevent the attacks of migraine. These include beta blockers such as propanolol and timolol, calcium channel blockers like verapamil and antidepressants such as amitripyline or venlafaxine [7]. The general principle observed while giving a prophylactic is to start slow and increase the dose gradually and to get a trial of 2 to 3 months done before administration.

Certain lifestyle changes are highly recommended, in order to reduce and prevents the frequency and intensity of migraine attacks [8]. These include eating healthy foods, maintaining adequate amount of sleep daily without altering its timings, to avoid any conditions which are known to trigger migraine, reduce alcohol, meditation and limiting stress and worry [10] [11].

The word migraine is derived from a Greek word hemikrainia. This term was translated to French and called migraine.

Migraine is a chronic nervous system disorder characterized by recurrent headaches, intense in character. About 28 million people in United States suffer from migraine. About 25% of migraine sufferers experience a pre-migraine phenomenon called aura.

A migraine comprises of an intense unbearable headache which is throbbing and pulsating in character. This is usually accompanied by sensation of nausea, vomiting and a heightened sensitivity to light with or without audio-visual disturbances.

The migraine attacks can stay for few minutes to hours or even for days together. Some of these attacks are preceded by aura such as flashes of light before eyes, altered consciousness or numbness of limbs. Stress, fasting for long hours, lack of sleep are found to trigger migraine. Hence these lifestyle changes are advised to prevent migraine [11]. Diagnostic tests are of little use in diagnosing a migraine and prognosis is generally good.

1. Allais G, Gabellari IC, De Lorenzo C, Mana O, Benedetto C. Oral contraceptives in migraine. Expert Rev Neurother. Mar 2009;9(3):381-93.
2. Cutrer, FM. Pathophysiology of migraine. Semin Neurol. 2010 Apr; 30(2):120-30.
3. Spierings EL. Pathogenesis of the migraine attack. Clin J Pain. 2003 Jul-Aug;19(4):255-62.
4. Stewart WF, Lipton RB, Celentano DD, Reed ML. Prevalence of Migraine Headache in the United States Relation to Age, Income, Race, and Other Sociodemographic Factors. JAMA. 1992;267(1):64-69.
5. Pietrobon D, Striessnig J. Neurobiology of migraine. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2003 May 1; 4(5)386–398.
6. Skaer TL. Clinical presentation and treatment of migraine. Clin THer. 1996 Mar-Apr;18(2):229-45; discussion 228.
7. Silberstein SD, Holland S, Freitag F, Dodick DW, Argoff C, Ashman E. Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society. Evidence-based guideline update: pharmacologic treatment for episodic migraine prevention in adults. Neurology. 2012 Apr 24;78(17):1337-45.
8. Elrington G. Migraine: diagnosis and management. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002 Jun; 72 Suppl 2:ii10-ii15.
9. Hildreth CJ, Lynm C, Glass RM. Migraine Headache. JAMA. 2009 June 24; 301(24).
10. Goadsby PJ. Stress and migraine: something expected, something unexpected. Neurology. 2014 April 22;82(16)1388-9.
11. Lipton RB, Buse DC, Hall CB, Tennen H. Reduction in perceived stress as a migraine trigger Testing the “let-down headache” hypothesis. Neurology. 2014 April 22; 82(16): 1395-1401.