The following are the more common signs and symptoms of otitis externa:

• Otalgia 
• Erythema
• Pruritus
• Fluid discharge from the ear (pus)
• Hearing impairment
• Swelling of the affected ear

• Cervical Lymphadenopathy

  If there is cellulitis or cervical lymphadenopathy, oral antibiotics are indicated. Patients with systemic symptoms need same-day ENT review and may need admission for intravenous antibiotics. [patient.info]

• Pain

  Analgesics, such as oxycodone with acetaminophen, may be necessary for pain relief. Dry heat can also lessen pain and hasten resolution. [msdmanuals.com]

  Pain Medicine Give acetaminophen (e.g. Tylenol) or ibuprofen for pain relief. Local Heat If pain is moderate to severe, apply a heating pad or hot water bottle to outer ear for 20 minutes. This will also increase drainage. [web.archive.org]

  Touching or moving the outer ear will increase the pain. The eardrum may be hard to see because of a swelling in the outer ear. The eardrum may have a hole in it. This is called a perforation. [nlm.nih.gov]

  Over-the-counter pain relievers often can manage ear pain, but a prescription pain medicine may be needed if it's severe. Once treatment starts, your child will start to feel better in a day or two. [kidshealth.org]

• Fever

  Fever, irritability, otalgia, and hearing loss are also often present. Infection can be serious and may lead to sepsis, sigmoid sinus thrombosis, and intracranial abscess if not treated appropriately. [oxfordmedicine.com]

  […] on the outer ear Itching Drainage of clear fluid As the infection progresses, you may notice: Increased pain Redness and swelling of the ear canal and outer ear Drainage of yellow or yellow-green pus Feeling of ears being plugged Difficulty hearing Fever [nm.org]

  Call your doctor immediately if your child has any pain in the ear with or without fever, decreased hearing in one or both ears, or abnormal discharge from the ear. Date reviewed: March 2016 [kidshealth.org]

  Acetaminophen decreases pain and fever. It is available without a doctor's order. Ask how much to take and how often to take it. Follow directions. Acetaminophen can cause liver damage if not taken correctly. [drugs.com]

• Lymphadenopathy

  Pre-auricular lymphadenopathy. The condition is generally more severe with any of the following: Oedematous ear canal narrowed and obscured by debris. Hearing loss. Discharge. Regional lymphadenopathy. Cellulitis spreading beyond the ear. Fever. [patient.info]

  Lymphadenopathy - Postauricular, preauricular, and lateral cervical lymph nodes. Facial paralysis, cranial nerve abnormalities, vertigo, or sensorineural hearing loss. [clinicaladvisor.com]

  Pain is present, particularly on manipulation of the pinna, but is usually moderate in comparison to NOE There may be systemic symptoms including fever, generalised illness and regional lymphadenopathy Chronic stenosis of the ear canal or false fundus [entsho.com]

  Bacteria Significant swelling of canal is common Discomfort is often severe enough to require oral analgesics Fever may be present Lymphadenopathy (swollen lymph nodes) around the base of the ear Discharge is usually scant white mucus, but occasionally [dermnetnz.org]

• Sepsis

  Infection can be serious and may lead to sepsis, sigmoid sinus thrombosis, and intracranial abscess if not treated appropriately. More common complications include chronic infection, resistant bacteria, and mild hearing loss. [oxfordmedicine.com]

  Investigations Microbiology swabs of any discharge prior to initiating management IV access and FBC, U&E, serum glucose, CRP, ESR Blood cultures if pyrexial Don't forget the Sepsis Six bundle CT Temporal bone (fine slice) if NOE is suspected Treatment [entsho.com]

  Code in candidiasis B37.84 moniliasis B37.84 ICD-10-CM Codes Adjacent To B37.84 B37.41 Candidal cystitis and urethritis B37.42 Candidal balanitis B37.49 Other urogenital candidiasis B37.5 Candidal meningitis B37.6 Candidal endocarditis B37.7 Candidal sepsis [icd10data.com]

  When necrotizing OE develops, mortality is in the 20% range among adults, mostly because of the associated comorbidities and the rapid extension of the infection to include sepsis or intracranial extension. [emedicine.medscape.com]

• Rigor

  The effectiveness of these interventions has never been rigorously studied, and patients have difficulty complying with the regimen. Acute otitis externa is easily diagnosed by signs and symptoms of canal inflammation. [cdn.journals.lww.com]

• Pruritus

  Ear discomfort can range from pruritus (itching) to severe pain that is worsened by motion of the ear, e.g. chewing. Discharge from the ear varies between patients and may give a clue to the cause of the condition. [dermnetnz.org]

  There was no difference in improvement of OTI-3 between groups at any time point, whereas Group A cytology scores and pruritus improved significantly more by Day 7 (P = 0.0026 and P = 0.0294, respectively). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  – Ear canal pruritus or ear pain, often severe and exacerbated by motion of the pinna; feeling of fullness in the ear; clear or purulent ear discharge or no discharge – Otoscopy (remove skin debris and secretions from the auditory canal by gentle dry [medicalguidelines.msf.org]

  Definition and Epidemiology The symptoms of acute diffuse OE include pruritus, pain, and tenderness to palpation. As the process progresses, a sensation of fullness and hearing loss can occur. Chewing and moving the jaw often exacerbate otalgia. [pedsinreview.aappublications.org]

• Otalgia

  We report the case of a patient who was diagnosed with simple otitis externa after presenting to the emergency department (ED) with a 3-day history of right-sided otalgia. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Fever, irritability, otalgia, and hearing loss are also often present. Infection can be serious and may lead to sepsis, sigmoid sinus thrombosis, and intracranial abscess if not treated appropriately. [oxfordmedicine.com]

  The most common symptoms related to AOE described by patients are otalgia and otorrhea. Complaints of otalgia can range from mild pruritus to severe discomfort. Patients have also described a feeling of fullness or pressure in the ear. [contemporaryclinic.pharmacytimes.com]

• Tinnitus

  Clinical practice guideline: tinnitus. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2014 Oct;151(S2):S1-40. Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel, ZM, Peters A, Walsh S, Corrigan MD. [choosingwisely.org]

  It is commonly seen in swimmers, particularly in the summer months.1 The most frequent symptoms are discharge, pain, hearing loss, itching, and tinnitus. [mdedge.com]

  History Patients with otitis externa (OE) may complain of the following: Otalgia, ranging from mild to severe, typically progressing over 1-2 days Hearing loss Ear fullness or pressure Tinnitus Fever (occasionally) Itching (especially in fungal OE or [emedicine.medscape.com]

  There is a history of increasing otalgia with or without: custard-like, thick ear discharge conductive hearing loss tinnitus dizziness or dysequilibrium (sometimes true vertigo) It is important to note any significant risk factors for severe AOE or development [entsho.com]

  Pruritus may be quite intense, resulting in scratching and further damage to the skin lining Tinnitus (ringing in the ears) Atopic dermatitis Intensely itchy Typically part of a more generalised skin involvement, including the external ears, face and [dermnetnz.org]

• Ear Discharge

  […] of fullness in the ear; clear or purulent ear discharge or no discharge – Otoscopy (remove skin debris and secretions from the auditory canal by gentle dry mopping (use a dry cotton bud or a small piece of dry cotton wool): • diffuse erythema and edema [medicalguidelines.msf.org]

  Ear swab was not routinely done and only 6(15.8%) of the discharging ears had microscopy done and the organisms were Pseudomonas spp and klebsiella. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms include pain in the ear, itchiness in the ear canal, partial hearing loss and a discharge of pus or liquid. [ada.com]

  Symptoms include temporary hearing loss, ringing or buzzing in the ears, discharge, and bleeding from the ear. In rare cases, necrotizing (malignant) otitis externa occurs. [healthline.com]

• Ear Fullness

  History Patients with otitis externa (OE) may complain of the following: Otalgia, ranging from mild to severe, typically progressing over 1-2 days Hearing loss Ear fullness or pressure Tinnitus Fever (occasionally) Itching (especially in fungal OE or [emedicine.medscape.com]

  Other symptoms include itching, ear fullness, hearing loss, or jaw pain. Canal inflammation is reproduced by pain from pressing on the tragus or pulling the pinna of the ear. (See photos.) [cdn.journals.lww.com]

  In some patients with OE, the ear must be debrided for full resolution. Surgical incision and drainage are sometimes necessary. In some patients, OE can cause severe otalgia necessitating administration of narcotic pain relievers. [emedicine.com]

• Hearing Problem

  If you still have hearing problems after treatment, have your hearing tested by an audiologist. [asha.org]

  Treatment of ear infections and serous otitis media, along with assessment of any hearing problems is needed. Speech therapy can be offered if concerns arise. [orpha.net]

• Suggestibility

  The goal of this case report is to improve the knowledge of providers caring for personnel who may be exposed and to suggest possible revisions to the Safety Data Sheets for jet fuel.Long RJ, Charles RA. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  The use of a blowdryer on a low setting after swimming to dry the ear canal has been suggested as a preventative measure. No studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of this suggestion. [kidshealthwa.com]

  Instilling a topical anesthetic into the canal for prolonged pain relief is of no proven value and generally not suggested. [cdn.journals.lww.com]

• Cellulitis of the Face

  […] of the face and neck Topical administration of antibiotics is not possible (e.g., severe edema of the external auditory canal) or is ineffective. [amboss.com]

  Severe infections may cause lymphadenitis or cellulitis of the face or neck. [emedicine.medscape.com]

• Headache

  Atypical skull base osteomyelitis arising from the sphenoid or occipital bones without associated external otitis occurs much less frequently and initially may have headache as the only symptom. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  At 10 weeks, the patient remained well, with no neurological deficit and no residual ear symptoms, and CT demonstrated complete resolution of the intracranial abscesses. ear nose and throat/otolaryngology bone and joint infections otitis neurosurgery headache [casereports.bmj.com]

  • Cranial nerve palsy • Headaches, fever • Neck stiffness • Altered levels of consciousness 13. Hallmark finding: granulation tissue on floor of the ear canal at the bony-cartilaginous junction 14. [slideshare.net]

  Symptoms of Otitis Media and Otitis Externa Otitis Media: The following are some of the most commonly observed symptoms of Otitis Media, especially in children: Intense earache Headache Fever Sense of fullness in the ear Leaking of fluid from the ear [sinuswars.com]

• Cranial Nerve Involvement

  The facial nerve, Cranial Nerve VII, may be involved and manifests as facial paralysis if the infection spreads to the stylomastoid foramen where CN VII exits the skull. [emdocs.net]

  Nine patients had cranial nerve involvement. Twelve of 15 patients treated with medical therapy recovered, as did 11 of 12 patients that underwent surgery. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  If left untreated it can lead to cartilage and bone involvement with adjacent cranial nerve involvements. Can be seen in diabetics and in immunocompromised patients. [gloshospitals.nhs.uk]

  Acute otitis externa (AOE) can progress to necrotising otitis externa (NOE), which is an oseteomyelitis of the temporal bone and skull base, sometimes with cranial nerve involvement. [entsho.com]

Patients suspected with otitis externa are brought to the physician for initial evaluation of the outer ear for evident signs. An otoscopic examination is then conducted to see the inner canal and the condition of the tympanic membrane. In complicated cases of otitis externa, patients are usually referred to an otolaryngologist  for further evaluation and management.

Sample of secretions or ear debris may be taken for laboratory culture and sensitivity testing to determine the ideal antibiotics to be used in case the preliminary antibiotics prove to be ineffective. Imaging technique with computed tomography (CT) of the skull may be implored to elucidate the bony erosions with necrotizing cases of malignant otitis externa [7]. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is indicated where suspected deep soft tissue involvement is entertained for better visualization [8].

• Pseudomonas

  When sterile saline drops were applied to bacterially contaminated otowicks, the penetrating drops displayed bacterial growth on agar, indicating that pseudomonas penetrated through the otowick. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Microbiology: • Pseudomonas aeruginosa (95%) • Fungus (A. Fumigatus, A. Flavus, A. [slideshare.net]

  (67%), Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, gram-negative rods Fungal infection (10%): Aspergillus (90%), Candida, Phycomycetes, Rhizopus, Actinomyces, Penicillium Chronic otitis externa: bacterial infection: Pseudomonas Eczematous otitis externa (associated [unboundmedicine.com]

  Acute diffuse external otitis is usually caused by bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus aureus, or Escherichia coli. [msdmanuals.com]

• Staphylococcus Aureus

  The discharge culture grew colonies of methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus. After 48 hours of treatment with intravenous cloxacillin, significant improvement was observed. [hindawi.com]

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is causing growing concern in hospitals. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  The bacteria that cause the infection are usually either Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Staphylococcus aureus. In cases of chronic otitis externa, there may be a chronic, low-grade infection, which is difficult to diagnose. [hse.ie]

Majority of otitis externa is treated medically while some cases may require surgical drainage as a treatment option.

These are the medical modalities available for the treatment of otitis externa:

• Analgesics: Patients may benefit from pain relievers like naproxen and ibuprofen. In severe cases of otitis externa, narcotics may be given to subdue the pain [9].
• Antibiotics: This is the mainstay on the treatment of otitis externa. Antibiotic therapy may be taken orally, eardrops form or in combination where the cure rate reaches 87-97% in uncomplicated case [10].
• Steroids: Severe inflammation may be controlled by the oral intake of steroids
• Antifungals: Fungal coinfection with otitis externa may need antifungal medications.
• Acidic solutions: Ear drops that may restore the normal pH of the ear to fend off invading bacteria.

The majority of otitis externa patient will resolve within 48-72 hours without complication after the administration of pharmacotherapy. Full recovery is usually expected within 7 to 10 days. Surgical drainage and debridement may be necessary to drain abscesses in the ear.

Untreated local infections may lead to malignant otitis externa which may complicate morbidity and cause mortality in severe forms. The necrotizing form of malignant otitis externa may reach a mortality rating of 20% especially among immune-compromised hosts and may even reach 50% if no medical interventions are done.

Complications

Otitis externa may give rise to any of the following given medical complications:

• Temporary auditory disturbance: Temporary hearing loss may be experienced during the inflammatory process which is usually due to impacted cerumen. This could resolve spontaneously within one week.
• Cellulitis: The uncontrolled spread of bacteria in contiguous structures like the face may sometimes occur. 
• Chronic otitis externa: Acute otitis externa with recurrent symptoms beyond 3 months becomes chronic otitis externa. This is caused by tougher bacterial strain which may be resistant to treatment, an allergic response, or a coinfection with a fungus.
• Necrotizing infection: The inward spread to the deeper tissue and the bones is severe complication of otitis externa which can cause mortality.
• Spread of infection: The uncontrolled infection may spread to the brain and cause abscess.

The most common cause of otitis externa is retained water in the ear that breeds the bacterial pathogen. Any break in the integrity of the skin of the ear canal can lead to the infection of the ear. Abrasions happen with frequent scratching, chronic use of ear piece and the ungentle application of cotton swabs during ear cleaning.

The accumulated cerumen may hold moisture and propagate the growth of bacterial organisms that may lead to infections. The majority of otitis externa is caused by bacterial infection; however, fungal (otomycosis) and psoriatic etiology may rarely initiate the disease process [1].

The most common pathogen in otitis externa is Pseudomonas aeruginosa representing 38% of cases followed by Staphylococcus species, anaerobes and gram-negative organisms [2].

In the United States, otitis externa has been recorded across all states with an average incidence of 4 cases per 1000 population per year [3]. Infection of the external ear abounds during the summer season where it’s warm and humid and presumably because water activities are common during this time [4]. Otitis externa are more prevalent in tropical countries than in temperate countries.

The disease affliction peaks at 7–12 years of age and is also common among young adults. The prevalence of otitis externa slightly peaks again beyond the age of 65 years old because of comorbid factors like diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis, and there is a large sector of elders that uses hearing aids which can propagate the infections. Patient with allergic rhinitis and asthma are more prone to otitis externa [5].

The pathophysiology in the development of otitis externa can be divided into four mechanisms of origin:

Obstructive: The accumulation of cerumen may accumulate water and moisture causing a maceration of the outer skin layer which invites bacterial invasion.

Drying: The absence of cerumen and loss of natural moisture of the ear canal skin due to frequent ear cleaning can cause fissuring and thinning of the skin membranes. The compromised skin layer may invite invading bacteria to cause the infection.

Trauma: Any break in the skin layer due to trauma from cotton wabs, fingernails or instruments may cause abrasion and eventual infection of the ear canal.

Alteration of skin natural pH: Patient on radiotherapy, chemotherapy and on chronic steroids use can alter the skin’s pH making it less resistant to bacterial invasion. Immuno-compromised patients may develop a severe necrotizing form of infection known as malignant otitis externa [6].

The best way to prevent water from accumulating in the ear canal is to wear ear plugs and swimming caps during swimming and diving activities. Practice tilting of one’s head in both directions after shower and swimming to rid-off excess water from both ears. Cleaning of ears must be done in moderation in up to once weekly to prevent the drying of the ear canal.

Otitis externa or outer ear infection is an infection of the outer ear canal. Patients must observe strict compliance in the intake of antibiotics to avoid antibiotic resistance of bacterial infection. One must call the attention of the attending physician if no improvements are observed after 3 days of treatment to merit reevaluation of treatment and prevent serious complications. Any notable discharges must also be reported to proper medical authorities for further investigation and evaluation.