Diagnosing preeclampsia may be a little difficult as the mild to moderate forms may be asymptomatic and hence, most cases are detected through routine prenatal check-ups. A patient suffering from preeclampsia may present with the following signs and symptoms which are usually endorgan effects: headache, blurred vision, altered mental state, cortical or retinal blindness, edema of the lower limbs or facial edema, dyspnoea, abdominal pain and weakness [5]. There is high blood pressure as a rule.

Complications include seizures, stoke, pulmonary edema, heart failure, blindness and bleeding post-delivery. It is one of the leading causes of premature births, the complications of which include: cerebral palsy, epilepsy and learning disabilities. It also causes stillbirths.

• Weight Gain

  The purpose of this paper was to examine gestational weight gain in the Norwegian Fit for Delivery study among women who developed preeclampsia compared to those who did not, and to further explore associations between weight gain and preeclampsia by [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Energy/protein restriction in pregnant women with high weight‐for‐height or weight gain [dx.doi.org]

  Swelling, sudden weight gain, headaches and changes in vision are important symptoms ; however, some women with rapidly advancing disease report few symptoms. [preeclampsia.org]

  Women in late pregnancy who complain about swelling, extreme weight gain, and feeling bad are often labeled as overreacting. [thedailybeast.com]

• Ascites

  Autopsy revealed extensive acute pancreatic necrosis, pleural effusions, ascites, and fatty liver without evidence of microthrombi. The cause of death was acute necrotizing pancreatitis resulting from severe preeclampsia. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms of diminished oncotic pressure may include ascites, edema and hydrothorax. [en.wikipedia.org]

  One patient may present with eclamptic seizures, another with liver dysfunction and intrauterine growth retardation, another with pulmonary edema, still another with abruptio placentae and renal failure, and another with ascites and anasarca. B. [health.am]

  The maternal indications for delivery were thrombocytopenia (n = 5), uncontrolled severe hypertension (n = 3), headache/blurred vision (n = 3), epigastric pain (n = 2), severe ascites (n = 1), and maternal demand (n = 2). [glowm.com]

• Ankle Swelling

  […] output Dizziness Excessive vomiting and nausea Vision changes Continued You should seek care right away if you have: Sudden and new swelling in your face, hands, and eyes (some feet and ankle swelling is normal during pregnancy.) [webmd.com]

• Vomiting

  The condition termed cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) was characterized a decade ago by Allen et al. and includes cyclic episodes of nausea and vomiting and the learned behavior of hot bathing in individuals with chronic cannabis abuse. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Nausea or vomiting. Some women experience nausea and vomiting throughout their pregnancy. However, for most women, morning sickness will go away after the first trimester. [intermountainhealthcare.org]

  Nausea or vomiting iStock/nd3000 Morning sickness should disappear after the first trimester, so if you all of a sudden have nausea or vomiting in the second or third trimester, chances are it’s caused by something else. [rd.com]

  Back to top Nausea or Vomiting Nausea or vomiting is particularly significant when the onset is sudden and after mid-pregnancy. [preeclampsia.org]

• Nausea

  The condition termed cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) was characterized a decade ago by Allen et al. and includes cyclic episodes of nausea and vomiting and the learned behavior of hot bathing in individuals with chronic cannabis abuse. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Nausea or vomiting. Some women experience nausea and vomiting throughout their pregnancy. However, for most women, morning sickness will go away after the first trimester. [intermountainhealthcare.org]

  Nausea or vomiting iStock/nd3000 Morning sickness should disappear after the first trimester, so if you all of a sudden have nausea or vomiting in the second or third trimester, chances are it’s caused by something else. [rd.com]

  Back to top Nausea or Vomiting Nausea or vomiting is particularly significant when the onset is sudden and after mid-pregnancy. [preeclampsia.org]

  Affected women may also develop other symptoms such as sudden weight gain, headaches, swelling, abdominal pain, nausea, heartburn, fatigue and visual disturbances. [news-medical.net]

• Epigastric Pain

  Although extremely rare, aortic dissection might be a possibility in preeclampsia pregnant women, the differential diagnosis of chest and/or epigastric pain in preeclampia patient should be thoroughly investigated and treated. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Epigastric pain, thrombocytopenia, and visual disturbances are strong indications for delivery of the fetus. For mild to moderate preeclampsia-eclampsia, bed rest is the cornerstone of therapy. [health.am]

  They include: Frontal headache Visual disturbance Epigastric pain (pain felt in the middle of the upper abdomen, just below the ribcage) Rapidly progressive swelling of the face and hands Sudden weight gain Shortness of breath Nausea or vomiting Your [healthyslide.com]

• Morning Sickness

  Nausea and dizziness Chances are, you’ll feel dizzy and queasy at some point while expecting (hello, morning sickness!) [momtastic.com]

  However, for most women, morning sickness will go away after the first trimester. If nausea and vomiting come back after mid-pregnancy, it can be a sign you’re developing preeclampsia. [intermountainhealthcare.org]

  QUESTION Nothing can relieve the symptoms of morning sickness. See Answer What are complications of preeclampsia and eclampsia? Preeclampsia reduces the amount of blood flow to the placenta and the fetus. [medicinenet.com]

  Nausea or vomiting iStock/nd3000 Morning sickness should disappear after the first trimester, so if you all of a sudden have nausea or vomiting in the second or third trimester, chances are it’s caused by something else. [rd.com]

• Right Upper Quadrant Pain

  Severe hypertension (SBP ≥ 160 mm Hg and/or DBP ≥ 110 mmHg), thrombocytopenia < 100.000/μL, liver transaminases above twice the normal values, HELLP syndrome, renal failure, persistent epigastric or right upper quadrant pain, visual or neurologic symptoms [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  upper quadrant pain), neurological complications, haematological complications; 3) fetal growth restriction. [1] American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; Task Force on Hypertension in Pregnancy. [bestpractice.bmj.com]

  During prenatal visits after 20 weeks of gestation, pregnant women should be asked about specific symptoms, including visual disturbances, persistent headaches, epigastric or right upper quadrant pain, and increased edema. [aafp.org]

  Right upper-quadrant pain Pain in the upper stomach, especially on your right side. This can easily be confused with heartburn — something common in pregnancy. [modernfertility.com]

• Hypertension

  and gestational hypertension ... [health.am]

  Severe gestational hypertension, however, may be associated with preterm birth and infants who are small for their age at birth.1 Some women who have gestational hypertension later develop preeclampsia.2,3,4 Preeclampsia is similar to gestational hypertension [nichd.nih.gov]

  Read the Committee Opinion: Emergent Therapy for Acute-Onset, Severe Hypertension During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period Maternal Safety Bundle for Severe Hypertension in Pregnancy The Maternal Safety Bundle for Severe Hypertension in Pregnancy, issued [acog.org]

  Hypertensive disease in pregnancy is associated with a spectrum of severity, ranging from mild pregnancy-induced hypertension to eclampsia. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) During Pregnancy Menu What is high blood pressure (hypertension)? Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against blood vessel walls. [my.clevelandclinic.org]

• Blurred Vision

  The patient complained of blurred vision in both eyes throughout the perinatal period. The ophthalmic examination revealed serous retinal detachment in both eyes. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Cotton Wool Spots

  These patients may or may not show evidence of cotton-wool patches and hemorrhages in the retina. [eyewiki.aao.org]

• Facial Edema

  A patient suffering from preeclampsia may present with the following signs and symptoms which are usually endorgan effects: headache, blurred vision, altered mental state, cortical or retinal blindness, edema of the lower limbs or facial edema, dyspnoea [symptoma.com]

  Increasing maternal facial edema and rapid weight gain also should be noted because fluid retention often is associated with preeclampsia. [aafp.org]

  Epigastric or right upper quadrant abdominal pain Weakness or malaise - May be evidence of hemolytic anemia Edema exists in many pregnant women, but a sudden increase in edema or facial edema is suggestive of preeclampsia. [emedicine.com]

• Oliguria

  Oliguria was also removed as a characteristic of severe disease. [3] There have been several cases reported in the literature as well as by Obstetricians citing the incidence of preeclampsia occurring upwards of 6 to even 12 weeks postpartum. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Oliguria (urine output < 500 cc/day) indicates a much more severe clinical picture. Sudden onset or worsening of edema is a cause of concern in preeclamptic patients. Thrombocytopenia and liver damage are other clinical manifestations. [renalandurologynews.com]

  […] swelling of the face and hands Sudden weight gain Shortness of breath Nausea or vomiting Your doctor may also find the following during clinical examination High blood pressure of 140/90mmHg or higher Proteinuria Abnormal liver enzymes Low platelet count Oliguria [healthyslide.com]

  Persistent oliguria is treated with a carefully monitored fluid challenge. Diuretics are usually not used. [merckmanuals.com]

• Kidney Failure

  If left untreated, pre-eclampsia can lead to serious problems such as: fitting or convulsions kidney failure liver failure blood clotting problems death. [betterhealth.vic.gov.au]

  Until now, pre-eclampsia -- which, in its more severe forms, can lead to brain haemorrhages, oedema of the lungs and kidney failure -- could only be clarified by elaborate tests. [sciencedaily.com]

  They can include: Seizures in the mother Stroke Temporary kidney failure Liver problems Blood clotting problems Placental abruption: The placenta pulls away from the wall of the uterus, causing distress to the baby and the bleeding in the mother Premature [my.clevelandclinic.org]

  Comparing the obese and non-obese members of this group, the researchers found that the obese women were less than half as likely to have had any of the more serious outcomes of severe preeclampsia, which include stroke, liver failure, kidney failure, [dailymail.co.uk]

  The bleeding may be life-threatening to both the mother and the fetus. kidney failure in the mother HELLP syndrome – this stands for hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count. Hemolysis is destruction of red blood cells in the liver. [medbroadcast.com]

• Anuria

  Pulmonary arterial pressure monitoring is rarely indicated but may be helpful in patients who have evidence of pulmonary edema or oliguria/anuria. [emedicine.com]

• Seizure

  Approximately 1 in 200 women with mild preeclampsia go on to have full-blown eclampsia, a condition leading to seizures that can be fatal to both mother and fetus. As many as 1 in 60 women with severe preeclampsia may develop a seizure. [medbroadcast.com]

  Symptoms of eclampsia include those of preeclampsia along with the development of seizures. When seizures occur, they are most often preceded by neurological symptoms like headache and vision disturbances. [medicinenet.com]

  Do not overlook other neurologic causes of seizure, particularly if the seizure occurs more than 24 hours after delivery. [emedicine.com]

  HELLP syndrome and eclampsia (seizures) are other variants of preeclampsia. Treatments include medications to prevent seizures (magnesium sulfate) and to lower blood pressure (antihypertensives). [preeclampsia.org]

• Headache

  Severe preeclampsia is diagnosed when blood pressure is over 160/110 mm Hg, accompanied by severe proteinuria, severe headache, abdominal pain, visual problems, or decreased growth of the baby. [medbroadcast.com]

  Severe headache Headaches, of course, are common during pregnancy (sinus congestion is often the cause), but severe headaches or headaches that won’t go away may signal preeclampsia. 3. [momtastic.com]

  Swelling, sudden weight gain, headaches and changes in vision are important symptoms ; however, some women with rapidly advancing disease report few symptoms. [preeclampsia.org]

  The most common symptom (69%) for PPPE is headache (Al-Safi, et al., 2011). [cappa.net]

  A head CT scan may be done to detect intracranial haemorrhage in patients who present with sudden severe headaches and seizures. It is also important to assess the status of the fetus by doing an utrasonogaphy. [symptoma.com]

• Dizziness

  Nausea and dizziness Chances are, you’ll feel dizzy and queasy at some point while expecting (hello, morning sickness!) [momtastic.com]

  A 35-year-old pregnant woman, with one past uncomplicated pregnancy presented at 29 weeks to our medical institute as an emergency with dizziness, chest distress, palpitation, blurred vision and vaginal bleeding. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] addition to swelling, protein in the urine, and high blood pressure, preeclampsia symptoms can include: Rapid weight gain caused by a significant increase in bodily fluid Abdominal pain Severe headaches Change in reflexes Reduced urine or no urine output Dizziness [webmd.com]

  Other symptoms as the condition advances may be sudden weight gain, upper abdominal pain, headaches, dizziness, and changes in vision. [cyh.com]

• Hyperreflexia

  Increasing blood pressure will lead to increasing hyperreflexia (overactive reflexes), until eventually uncontrollable seizures result. [medbroadcast.com]

  […] a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy that is characterized by new-onset hypertension with proteinuria presenting after 20 weeks of gestation, and depending on mild or severe forms may initially present with severe headache, visual disturbances, and hyperreflexia [orpha.net]

  Back to top Hyperreflexia Hyperreflexia is when your reflexes are so strong that when your knee is tapped by a rubber “hammer,” your leg bounces back hard. [preeclampsia.org]

  We present an unusual case of third nerve palsy, (presenting as diplopia, ptosis) with hypertension, hyperreflexia, proteinuria, easy bruising in a parturient at 34 + 6/52 weeks of twins gestation. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  With hyperreflexia, you’d kick him over—or at least have a really strong reflex. “Hyperreflexia occurs due to central nervous system irritability because of brain swelling,” Dr. Pollio says. [rd.com]

• Agitation

  FACTORS PET during another pregnancy advanced maternal age multiple pregnancy high BMI conception before age 20 connective tissue disorders protein C and S deficiencies factor V leiden mutation hyperhomocysteinemia EXAMINATION BP >140/90 hyperreflexic agitated [lifeinthefastlane.com]

  Symptoms A severe asthma attack can cause symptoms such as: Shortness of breath Can’t speak in full sentences Feel breathless even when you lie down Chest feels tight Bluish tint to your lips Feel agitated, confused, or can’t concentrate Hunched shoulders [webmd.com]

Women, who present with hypertension during pregnancy i.e. new onset hypertension, should have the following tests as mentioned: complete blood counts, serum creatinine, uric acid, serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels, 24-hour urine collection to check for protein and creatinine [6].

If HELLP syndrome is suspected, the following tests are to be done: peripheral blood smear, indirect bilirubin and serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) level. Prothrombin time and platelet count may also be done [5] [6]. A head CT scan may be done to detect intracranial haemorrhage in patients who present with sudden severe headaches and seizures. It is also important to assess the status of the fetus by doing an utrasonogaphy.

• Hyperuricemia

  Other factors helpful in making the diagnosis are hemoconcentration, hyperreflexia, hypoalbuminemia, liver function abnormalities, thrombocytopenia, and hyperuricemia. [healthcentral.com]

  Uric acid values can be quite helpful in such situations, since hyperuricemia is uncommon in pregnancy except with gout, renal failure, or preeclampsia-eclampsia. —————- Treatment A. Preeclampsia Early recognition is the key to treatment. [health.am]

  We include hyperuricemia in our classification as it identifies a more homogeneous group of gestational hypertensive women with a greater frequency of adverse fetal outcomes. 15 In this study, we determined blood pressure as the average of the last five [doi.org]

  […] of the disorder.[15] Elevated levels in the blood (hyperuricemia) are likely due to reduced uric acid clearance secondary to impaired kidney function. [en.wikipedia.org]

• Hypoglycemia

  […] abdominal pain, jaundice, anorexia lab findings elevated AST/ALT elevated LDH hyperammonemia throbocytopenia elevated BUN and Cr diagnosis lab findings most accurate: liver biopsy treatment delivery of fetus differentiate from HELLP also has renal failure, hypoglycemia [step2.medbullets.com]

  In addition, rule out hypoglycemia as cause of seizure or result of seizure, and rule out hyperglycemia as a cause of mental status changes. [emedicine.com]

  The short-term problems include perinatal asphyxia, meconium aspiration, persistent pulmonary hypertension, hypothermia, hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, hypocalcemia, polycythemia, jaundice, feeding difficulties, feed intolerance, necrotizing enterocolitis [doi.org]

• Uric Acid Increased

  Uric acid. Increased uric acid in the blood is often the earliest laboratory finding related to preeclampsia. Uric acid is a waste product formed from the breakdown of some protein-rich foods and the breakdown of cells in the body. [cigna.com]

  Serum uric acid increases early in PE, and has a positive correlation with placental bed atheromatosis injuries, lower birth weight infants,10 degree of hemoconcentration11 and severity of glomerular endotheliosis.12 Uric acid levels > 4.5 mg/dL are abnormal [scielo.br]

• Abnormal Renal Function

  Other renal function tests such as serum creatinine and creatinine clearance are abnormal in 50% to 70% of the cases. 62 Hemoconcentration and increased blood viscosity are seen in most cases of eclampsia. [glowm.com]

• Creatinine Increased

  These substances, which include blood urea nitrogen and creatinine, increase in the blood if the kidneys have been damaged. (For more information, see the topic Creatinine and Creatinine Clearance.) Liver function tests. [cigna.com]

In cases of preeclampsia, delivery at the earliest is the only cure. It is usually induced after the 37th week of pregnancy and in severe cases, delivery should be considered after the 34th week of gestation. However, if a patient presents with severe preeclampsia before 34 weeks gestation but appears to be stable and if the condition of the foetus is reassuring, expectant management may be considered if the patient meets the criteria set by Sibai et al. Also, it should only be considered in a tertiary centre. 

Delivery might not be the best option if the fetus is still premature. Before taking any step towards expectant management, a patient must be evaluated for at least 24 hours during which all laboratory values must fall within the normal range. Priority must be given to controlling blood pressure and seizures. It is important to deliver the fetus when there is uncontrollable blood pressure, ruptured membranes, oligohydraminos, non-reassuring fetal heart status, increased levels of serum creatinine and dyspnea. In case of seizures, the airway, breathing and circulation (ABC) should be monitored; magnesium sulphate is the treatment of choice for seizures and is a prophylactic treatment indicated in severe eclampsia [7]. Lorazepam and phenytoin are second-line treatments for seizures.

Various medications such as hydralazine, nifedipine and sodium nitroprusside is used to control blood pressure. To manage fluids patients should be fluid restricted when possible, diuretics should be avoided, and total fluids should be restricted to 80 ml/hour. A check must be kept on liver function tests and the blood pressure levels prior to hospital discharge. Postpartum patients on blood pressure medication should be carefully monitored for up to 4 weeks to rule out recurrent preeclampsia [7] [8].

The prognosis of preeclampsia is not well defined, however most women will have positive outcomes for their pregnancies that have been complicated by preeclampsia. Signs and symptoms generally go away within 6 weeks after pregnancy. Some women will continue to have problems with their blood pressure and will thus need to be monitored closely during the post-partum period.

Most babies do well however, premature babies require a longer stay in the hospital. Seizures during the post-partum period are an uncommon complication. If a woman develops preeclampsia at the end of her pregnancy, she has around 10% chances of developing pre-eclampsia in the subsequent pregnancy. In cases of severe preeclampsia, the woman has a 20% risk of developing it in subsequent pregnancies.

The etiology of preeclampsia is presently unknown although there are around 4 hypotheses which point out to the most probable cause.

The first hypothesis is that of placental ischemia which causes increased trophoblast deploration. Secondly, it could be due to very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) toxicity wherein to compensate for the increased energy demand during pregnancy, non-esterified fatty acids are mobilized. The third hypothesis suggests an immune maladaptation which causes a shallow invasion of the spiral arteries by the endovascular cytotrophoblast cells [2]. And lastly, genetic imprinting; it is thought that preeclampsia might be the result of a single recessive gene or one dominant gene having incomplete manifestation.

Preeclampsia is commonly seen in women who are nulliparous, above the age of 40 years, is more common amongst the black race and when there is a family history of the disease.

Women with chronic renal disease, diabetes mellitus, high body mass index, anti-phospholipid syndrome and chronic hypertension are also predisposed to developing preeclampsia in their pregnancies. Women with twin pregnancies are also at a risk for the same.

Among all cases, 10% occur in pregnancies of less than 34 weeks gestation. In developing countries, the incidence is 4-18% [3].

Usually, in normal pregnancies the villous cytotrophoblast invades the inner third of the myometrium. The spinal arteries shed the endothelium and majority of their muscle fibres, because of which they become low-resistance vessels making them poorly sensitive, almost insensitive, to vasoconstrictive substances.

The primary cause of preeclampsia is abnormal placentation which is caused by an abnormal invasion of the cytotrophoblast cells into the spiral arteries [3] [4]. The abnormalities may also be associated with the nitric oxide pathway, that is known to contribute to vascular tone and play a role in the inhibition of maternal synthesis of nitric oxide that prevents embryo implantation. An increased resistance from uterine arteries leads to higher sensitivity to vasoconstriction. This effectively causes chronic placental ischemia and increased oxidative stress.

All these factors lead to fetal complications such as intrauterine growth retardation and intrauterine death. Also, oxidative stress causes release of oxidized lipids, cytokines, free radicals, and serum soluble vascular endothelial growth factor 1 (VEGF 1) into the maternal circulation. All these factors thus, contribute to endothelial dysfunction with vascular hyper permeability, thrombophilia and hypertension to make up for the reduced blood supply through the uterine arteries due to peripheral vasoconstriction [4].

The impairment of the hepatic endothelium contributes to the onset of HELLP (Hemolysis, Elevated Liver Enzymes and Low Platelet count) syndrome. THre is also depletion of vascular endothelial growth factors in the podocytes that blocks the slit diaphragms situated in the basement membranes, further adding to reduction in glomerular filtration ultimately producing proteinuria. Vascular hyperpermeability usually associated with low serum albumin causes oedema [4].

There is no particular way to prevent preeclampsia as it is usually diagnosed during antenatal check-ups [9]. Also, preeclampsia is an important disease to screen as it increases maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality.

No appropriate test is present so far so the only possible way to prevent it would be early detection of modifiable risk factors. For example, nulliparous women above the age of 35 are at higher risk and therefore, interventional care must be provided at the appropriate time.

To prevent the complications of preeclampsia, it is very important to monitor the blood pressure levels frequently, it may help if the placental growth factors and vascular endothelial growth factor levels are monitored [9] [10]. Increased vascular endothelial growth factor combined with decreased placental growth factor is associated with an increased risk of preeclampsia [10]. All these steps for early detection of preeclampsia can enable a practitioner to take the appropriate measures at the right time.

Preeclampsia is a disorder of the vascular endothelium that generally occurs after the 20th week of pregnancy. It is characterized by hypertension and proteinuria with or without the presence of pathological edema.

Mild preeclampsia is usually diagnosed when the blood pressure of a pregnant woman is found to be ≥ 140/90 mm Hg [1]. The condition is termed as severe preeclampsia when one of the following signs or symptoms is present: systolic blood pressure ≥ 160 mm Hg or when the diastolic blood pressure is 110 mm Hg or more, along with proteinuria, oliguria, pulmonary edema and frequent headaches.

There may be signs of impaired foetal growth as well. The HELLP (haemolysis, elevated liver enzyme, low platelets) syndrome may complicate severe preeclampsia as well.

Preeclampsia is a pregnancy related disease whose course cannot be predicted. It can have severe consequences on the life of the mother and the foetus. It is characterized by an elevated blood pressure measuring ≥ 140/90 mm Hg. The patient may experience severe headaches; pain in the stomach, dizziness and shortness of breath.

This disease is usually seen in a woman who is expecting a child when she is above the age of 35 years. There is no known way of preventing preeclampsia however; early diagnosis can reduce the risk of the complications such as the development of seizures, heart failure and liver affections in the mother and also the possibility of a premature baby.

The only way of treating preeclampsia is delivery of the baby. If the pregnancy is not up to term then, then there is a risk if the baby is born premature. It can lead to cerebral palsy, epilepsy and learning disabilities in the baby. Complications of preeclampsia can be controlled if the blood pressure of the mother is monitored regularly.

1. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Hypertension in pregnancy. ACOG Technical Bulletin No. 219. Washington DC: 1996.
2. Zhou Y, Damsky CH, Fisher SJ. Preeclampsia is associated with failure of human cytotrophoblasts to mimic a vascular adhesion phenotype. One cause of defective endovascular invasion in this syndrome. J Clin Invest. 1997 May 1;99(9):2152-64.
3. Villar J, Betran AP, Gulmezoglu M. Epidemiological basis for the planning of maternal health services.WHO/RHR. 2001.
4. Zhou Y, Damsky CH, Chiu K, et al. Preeclampsia is associated with abnormal expression of adhesion molecules by invasive cytotrophoblasts. J Clin Invest. 1993 Mar;91(3):950-60.
5. Sibai BM. Diagnosis, prevention, and management of eclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Feb;105(2):402-10.
6. Baweja S, Kent A, Masterson R, Roberts S, McMahon L. Prediction of pre-eclampsia in early pregnancy by estimating the spot urinary albumin: creatinine ratio using high-performance liquid chromatography. B J OG. 2011 Aug;118(9):1126-32.
7. Sibai BM. Magnesium sulfate prophylaxis in preeclampsia: Lessons learned from recent trials. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Jun;190(6):1520-6.
8. Sibai BM, Barton JR. Expectant management of severe preeclampsia remote from term: patient selection, treatment, and delivery indications. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007 Jun;196(6):514.e1-9.
9. Sibai BM. Prevention of preeclampsia: a big disappointment. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998 Nov;179(5):1275-8.
10. Wagner LK. Diagnosis and management of preeclampsia. Am Fam Physician. 2004 Dec 15;70(12):2317-24.