Patients with RAS may be asymptomatic in many individuals, especially in those with unilateral occlusion. When symptoms are present, they will manifest in accordance with the length of onset, the severity, duration of renal vascular insufficiency, and whether the blockage is unilateral or bilateral.

In acute cases of complete obstruction, the clinical picture includes fever, nausea, emesis, abdominal pain, flank pain, hematuria, and oliguria/anuria. Furthermore, evidence of acute kidney injury develops after 24 hours. Patients will also exhibit signs of the underlying etiology such as thromboembolism.

Chronic stenosis results in hypertension that is resistant to antihypertensives. Hypertension will initially present at an atypical age, prior to the age of 35 or after 55. Moreover, previously well-controlled hypertension that suddenly worsens is another profile for longstanding RAS. Patients with chronic RAS slowly develop features of chronic renal disease.

Physical exam

Remarkable findings on the physical exam include abdominal bruit, especially on the flank. Additionally, patients with congestive heart failure (CHF) will exhibit signs such as peripheral edema among others.

• Renal Artery Stenosis

  Radiograph shows a complete occlusion of the right renal artery and marked stenosis of the left renal artery (arrow). [emedicine.medscape.com]

  Introduction Renal artery stenosis (RAS) is general term that refers to any vascular lesion causing narrowing of the renal artery thereby impairing blood flow to the kidney. [dovepress.com]

  Renal artery stenosis 1. Renal pyramid 2. Interlobular artery 3. Renal artery 4. Renal vein 5. Renal hilum 6. Renal pelvis 7. Ureter 8. Minor calyx 9. Renal capsule 10. Inferior renal capsule 11. Superior renal capsule 12. Interlobar vein 13. [en.wikipedia.org]

  KEYWORDS: Atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis; Hypertension; Renal revascularization [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Resistant Hypertension

  Renal denervation has been adopted as an additional treatment option to pharmacological antihypertensive therapy in patients with resistant hypertension. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Introduction Clinical definition narrowing of one or both renal arteries this often causes renovascular hypertension grade 1 – RAS (Renal artery stenosis) with no clinical symptoms grade 2 – RAS with controlled hypertension grade 3 – RAS with resistant [step2.medbullets.com]

• Congestive Heart Failure

  The smooth muscles contract following stimulation by angiotensin hormone. 2 Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)- Persistent high blood pressure causes congestive heart failure CHF is observed in elderly patient. [epainassist.com]

  Atherosclerotic RAS is a frequent finding and is often seen in patients with resistant hypertension, congestive heart failure, chronic kidney disease, and rarely those who need renal replacement therapy. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Asymptomatic

  A 30-year-old woman had a sudden, severe but asymptomatic hypertensive crisis at 21 weeks of gestation. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Hence, as many as one half or more of catheter-associated thrombi are asymptomatic. [pediatrics.aappublications.org]

  Symptoms Of Renal Artery Stenosis (RAS) Asymptomatic Disease- No Symptoms- The disease is often asymptomatic. [epainassist.com]

• Fatigue

  Overweight or obesity Smoking Diet high in cholesterol, fat, sugar, and sodium Males older than 45 or females older than 55 Family history of heart disease Physical inactivity Symptoms of renal artery stenosis are: More or less urination Drowsiness or fatigue [hattiesburgclinic.com]

  […] of diameter of > 60% string-of-beads appearance on angiography in fibromuscular dysplasia Differential Essential hypertension typically responsive to therapy Primary hyperaldosteronism high levels of aldosterone Obstructive sleep apnea lethargy and fatigue [step2.medbullets.com]

  Rarely, a person may have symptoms related to high blood pressure such as fatigue, headache, or dizziness. [jamanetwork.com]

  A poorly functioning kidney can cause swelling in the feet and legs, known as edema, weight loss, nausea and vomiting, changes in urination, darkened skin, muscle cramps, fatigue, and difficulty sleeping. [study.com]

• Nausea

  Symptoms of acute occlusion include steady, aching flank pain, abdominal pain, fever, nausea, vomiting, and hematuria. Acute kidney injury may develop. [msdmanuals.com]

  […] disease Physical inactivity Symptoms of renal artery stenosis are: More or less urination Drowsiness or fatigue Generalized itching or numbness Edema (swelling in the legs, feet, or ankles) Headaches Sleep issues Weight loss Dry skin Loss of appetite Nausea [hattiesburgclinic.com]

  In acute cases of complete obstruction, the clinical picture includes fever, nausea, emesis, abdominal pain, flank pain, hematuria, and oliguria/anuria. Furthermore, evidence of acute kidney injury develops after 24 hours. [symptoma.com]

  References:[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8] Pathophysiology Clinical features Abdominal bruits heard over the flank or epigastrium; present during both systole and diastole Hypertension that is often resistant to therapy Features of renal insufficiency (e.g., nausea [amboss.com]

  A poorly functioning kidney can cause swelling in the feet and legs, known as edema, weight loss, nausea and vomiting, changes in urination, darkened skin, muscle cramps, fatigue, and difficulty sleeping. [study.com]

• Vomiting

  Symptoms of acute occlusion include steady, aching flank pain, abdominal pain, fever, nausea, vomiting, and hematuria. Acute kidney injury may develop. [msdmanuals.com]

  Physical inactivity Symptoms of renal artery stenosis are: More or less urination Drowsiness or fatigue Generalized itching or numbness Edema (swelling in the legs, feet, or ankles) Headaches Sleep issues Weight loss Dry skin Loss of appetite Nausea or vomiting [hattiesburgclinic.com]

  A poorly functioning kidney can cause swelling in the feet and legs, known as edema, weight loss, nausea and vomiting, changes in urination, darkened skin, muscle cramps, fatigue, and difficulty sleeping. [study.com]

  Presentation Signs & Symptoms:  or in urination  edema, usually in the legs, feet, or ankles  drowsiness or tiredness  generalized itching or numbness  dry skin  headaches  weight loss  appetite loss  nausea  vomiting  sleep problems  trouble [slideshare.net]

  In March 2003, he presented with a short history of diarrhoea and vomiting followed by progressive acute left iliac fossa pain radiating to the back with tenderness to percussion. Blood pressure had climbed to 180/105 mmHg. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Hypertension

  Guidelines state that percutaneous revascularization is reasonable for patients with RAS and accelerated hypertension, resistant hypertension, malignant hypertension, hypertension with an unexplained unilateral small kidney, and hypertension with intolerance [dovepress.com]

  Introduction Clinical definition narrowing of one or both renal arteries this often causes renovascular hypertension grade 1 – RAS (Renal artery stenosis) with no clinical symptoms grade 2 – RAS with controlled hypertension grade 3 – RAS with resistant [step2.medbullets.com]

  Other indications for angioplasty are renovascular hypertension (due to atheromas) and fibromuscular dysplasia of the renal artery. Renal hypertension Treatment of renal hypertension is effective when vascular patency is established. [symptoma.com]

  KEYWORDS: Atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis; Hypertension; Renal revascularization [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Heart Disease

  […] failure pulmonary edema Associated conditions other manifestations of atherosclerotic disease carotid artery disease lower extremity artery disease coronary heart disease Prognosis prognostic variable negative elevated serum creatinine comorbid heart [step2.medbullets.com]

  You have an increased risk of developing heart disease if you have a parent with a history of heart disease, especially if they were diagnosed before Age 50. [my.clevelandclinic.org]

  Nausea or vomiting Trouble focusing Darker skin Muscle cramps Complications of this condition, as a result of decreased kidney function or narrowing arteries, include: Chronic kidney disease Coronary artery disease Peripheral vascular disease Stroke [hattiesburgclinic.com]

  Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 11th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2019:chap 47. [mountsinai.org]

• Kidney Failure

  Renal Artery Stenosis Renal artery stenosis is a blockage of an artery to the kidneys. It may cause kidney failure and hypertension (high blood pressure). [stanfordhealthcare.org]

  Chronic kidney failure — End-stage renal disease (ESRD); chronic kidney failure is diagnosed as ESRD when kidney function falls to 5-10% of capacity. Edema — Swelling which occurs when body tissues retain fluid. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  Eventually the patient developed acute limb ischemia and oliguric kidney failure as complications of the primary tumor. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Understanding Renal Artery Stenosis The renal artery provides blood flow to the kidneys. When this artery is blocked, it may cause kidney failure and high blood pressure. [barnesjewish.org]

  In its early stages, kidney failure does not cause symptoms, but is only detected in blood tests. The prevention of kidney failure is one of the main aims when doctors treat renal artery stenosis. [kidney.org.uk]

• Renal Insufficiency

  […] function and suspected RAS sensitivity and specificity sensitivity 90% specificity 94% MR angiography in patients with renal insufficiency indications in patients with renal insufficiency and suspected RAS sensitivity and specificity sensitivity 75-97% [step2.medbullets.com]

  Abstract Severe renal artery stenosis may cause renovascular hypertension; in case of bilateral narrowing or in a stenotic solitary kidney, renal insufficiency (e.g. ischemic kidney disease) or pulmonary flash edema may ensue. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Hematuria

  Leukocytosis, gross or microscopic hematuria, and proteinuria may also be present. [msdmanuals.com]

  […] of Renal Artery Stenosis (RAS) When there is a suspicion of a Renal Artery Stenosis, investigative tests may be ordered for confirmatory diagnosis, which may include: Urine Examination- Hematuria Proteinuria Blood Examination- Hyperkalemia (high serum [epainassist.com]

  In acute cases of complete obstruction, the clinical picture includes fever, nausea, emesis, abdominal pain, flank pain, hematuria, and oliguria/anuria. Furthermore, evidence of acute kidney injury develops after 24 hours. [symptoma.com]

• Anuria

  Gross hematuria, oliguria, or anuria may occur; hypertension is rare. After 24 hours, symptoms and signs of acute kidney injury may develop. [msdmanuals.com]

  In acute cases of complete obstruction, the clinical picture includes fever, nausea, emesis, abdominal pain, flank pain, hematuria, and oliguria/anuria. Furthermore, evidence of acute kidney injury develops after 24 hours. [symptoma.com]

  Symptoms of a renal artery occlusion includes : Blood in the urine (hematuria) Flank pain on the side of the affected kidney Abdominal pain Low urine output (oliguria) or no urine (anuria) Nausea and vomiting Fever Renal Artery Diagnosis The symptoms [healthhype.com]

  Such patients present with anuria (if the RAO affects a solitary kidney), rapidly deteriorating renal function and/or accelerated-phase hypertension. [bmb.oxfordjournals.org]

• Renal Injury

  These observations raise the possibility that occlusive ARAS may be partly responsible for progressive renal injury. How best to evaluate and characterize kidney function in these trials has been controversial. [ahajournals.org]

  Renal injury and fibrogenesis related to renal atherosclerotic disease develop as a result of multiple macrovascular injury mechanisms [12, 13, 34, 36, 37]. [karger.com]

  The importance of hypertensive intra-renal injury in ARVD There is now compelling evidence that intra-renal injury, probably most often caused by long-standing hypertension and predating RAS development, is the major factor responsible for renal dysfunction [bmb.oxfordjournals.org]

• Headache

  A previously healthy 7-year-old Korean boy presented to our clinic with hypertension and headache. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] older than 45 or females older than 55 Family history of heart disease Physical inactivity Symptoms of renal artery stenosis are: More or less urination Drowsiness or fatigue Generalized itching or numbness Edema (swelling in the legs, feet, or ankles) Headaches [hattiesburgclinic.com]

  However, it may also cause: Fluid retention Shortness of breath Headaches Ankle swelling Kidney failure occurs if both renal arteries are blocked. Diagnosis Your doctor may test your bodily fluids. [uvahealth.com]

  Case presentation A previously healthy 7-year-old Korean boy presented to our clinic with hypertension and headache. [bmcresnotes.biomedcentral.com]

Any patient with a clinical picture that is suggestive of RAS, such as presenting with hypertension at an atypical age or becoming suddenly refractory to antihypertensives, warrants a clinical evaluation. The workup consists of a thorough history including pre-existing risk factors, a complete physical examination, and pertinent studies.

Laboratory tests

Renal function is assessed by the serum creatinine level, which is also a variable used in predicting the GFR in the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) formula [14]. Further studies include a 24-hour urine collection and the protein-creatinine ratio of a urine sample, which would determine the degree of proteinuria. A urinalysis should be performed to exclude causes such as glomerulonephritis, which is typified by the presence of red blood cells and casts. Finally, serologic tests such as antinuclear antibodies and complements can evaluate for the presence of vasculitis and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).

Imaging

There are numerous studies that can be utilized in the evaluation of patients suspected to have RAS as described below.

The preferred method for confirmation of renal artery occlusion in patients with intermediate renal disease is arteriography. While conventional aortography yields superior images of the renal artery, the procedure is associated with serious risks since it entails arterial puncture and requires contrast. The complication rate is as much as 10% and encompasses sequelae such as cholesterol thromboembolism and contrast-induced acute tubular necrosis (ATN).

The noninvasive magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) technique reveals the anatomy of the renal vasculature and provides detailed information regarding the physiological renal function such as the GFR, blood flow rate, and perfusion rate. It also depicts the size of the kidneys. The shortcomings of this test are that it is expensive and is contraindicated in individuals with metallic clips, devices, and pacemakers.

Another useful tool is the spiral computed tomography (CT) angiography, which produces imaging of the renal artery and its anatomy. It does not involve catheterization.

Ultrasonography of the kidneys is a commonly performed study in those with renal impairment. Asymmetrical kidney size is suggestive of RAS.

A helpful noninvasive test is the Duplex ultrasonographic scanning, which ascertains the flow velocity by incorporating B-mode imaging with a pulse Doppler. This test demonstrates both 98% sensitivity and specificity. While it can be used in patients with any degree of dysfunction, it is not widely available since it requires specialized technicians.

Patients suspected to have fibromuscular disease with normal kidney function should undergo radionuclide scanning preceded by a dose of captopril.

Limitations of imaging tests

Contrast dyes place the patients at risk for nephrotoxicity in up to 40% of patients with chronic renal failure. They exhibit a brief elevation in creatinine 3 to 6 days following exposure. Fortunately, the majority recover as less than 10% requires permanent dialysis.

The treatment of RAS depends on its etiology, the degree of renal insufficiency, and how well the blood pressure is controlled.

Revascularization

The therapeutic approach for patients with significant obstruction in both renal arteries or in a sole functioning one is the same regardless of the functional renal status. With regards to those with normal function, revascularization is recommended for prevention of kidney failure in patients with 1) stenosis greater than 80% to 85% and 2) stenosis ranging from 50% to 80% with infrarenal occlusion demonstrated on captopril-enhanced scintigraphy.

Additionally, revascularization is performed to improve renal function and to prevent further deterioration of renal impairment. The criteria for this group of patients include 1) serum creatinine concentration below 4 mg/dL or 2) serum creatinine concentration above 4 mg/dL accompanied by a probable acute thrombosis of the renal artery.

Some studies have reported that greater than 50% of patients showed improvement in renal function after surgery [7].

Angioplasty

Patients with chronic RAS warrant percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA) with stenting if they have refractory hypertension despite treatment with at least three drugs, worsening renal function, recurrent episodes of flash pulmonary edema, or rapid deterioration of renal impairment of unknown cause. Revascularization and surgical resection of the infarcted kidney are other options for longstanding stenosis.

The treatment of acute RAS secondary to renal thromboembolism may consist of anticoagulation, fibrinolytics, and/or surgical intervention. The latter is associated with a higher mortality although it is favored in cases of traumatic etiology.

Other indications for angioplasty are renovascular hypertension (due to atheromas) and fibromuscular dysplasia of the renal artery.

Renal hypertension

Treatment of renal hypertension is effective when vascular patency is established. Pharmacologic therapy such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers, or renin inhibitors is beneficial in unilateral stenosis. They may be used in bilateral occlusion if the GFR is measured periodically.

Other

Patients should adhere to a healthy diet with salt restriction, physical exercise, smoking cessation, and control of hypertension and diabetes.

In patients receiving medical therapy, studies have demonstrated that progressive occlusion was observed in up to 53% of those with RAS secondary to atherosclerosis, especially in those with a high degree of obstruction [13].

Since atherosclerosis is responsible for a large percentage of RAS cases, the prognosis is poor. Renovascular disease encompasses the medical syndromes involving cardiac complications, ischemic nephropathy, and hypertension.

There are numerous risk factors associated with the development of RAS such as hypertension, older age especially in those over 60, renal impairment, atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, and smoking.

Acute cases are attributed to thromboembolism. The emboli mostly emerge from the heart or the aorta although fat and tumor may be the causative factors. Clots form either spontaneously or as a consequence of events such as dissection, trauma, surgery, or cardiovascular procedures such as angiography or angioplasty. Acute conditions have unilateral involvement.

The etiology of chronic renal artery stenosis is atherosclerosis in 90% of patients. The second most common cause is fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD), which occurs in young women [1]. The obstruction is bilateral in the former while typically unilateral in the latter.

The patient demographics for RAS demonstrates a strong predilection for men, who have twice the prevalence of women. With regards to race, white and African Americans are affected equally [2].

Structural changes

Chronic ischemia in RAS results in structural changes at the tubular level of the kidneys, which include atrophy of tubular cells, fibrosis, inflammation, tubulosclerosis, and thickening of the medial layer of the renal artery and Bowman capsule.

Physiologic changes

To compensate for the decreased perfusion, the kidneys employ adaptive physiologic mechanisms. The autoregulatory system maintains the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) during systemic blood pressure fluctuations ranging from 80 to 180mmHg. In the case of RAS, key modulators such as angiotensin II play a role in the autoregulation between afferent and efferent arteries. When the renal perfusion pressure is reduced to less than 70 to 85mm Hg, the autoregulatory mechanisms struggle to restore GFR. Significant compromise of this system occurs when the stenosis is above 50%.

Complications

RAS is the second most common cause of hypertension [3]. and leads to end-stage kidney disease in 10% receiving renal dialysis [4] [5].

Nearly 25% of elderly patients with renal impairment have undiagnosed underlying RAS [6] [7]. The latter is likely to manifest in patients with atherosclerosis in the cerebral, coronary, or peripheral vasculature [8].

Additionally, RAS is present in 30% to 40% of cases with abdominal aortic aneurysm or peripheral artery disease [9] [10]. and in as much as a third of individuals undergoing cardiac catheterization for heart disease [11] [12].

Strategies for the prevention of atherosclerosis is the same for RAS. Patients are advised to address key lifestyle modifications such as eating a healthy diet, engaging in physical activity, smoking cessation, limiting alcohol intake, control of hypertension and diabetes, and weight maintenance. All individuals are encouraged to follow-up regularly with their physician.

Renal artery stenosis (RAS) is defined as the unilateral or bilateral occlusion of renal arteries. This condition has varying etiologies depending on its onset. For example, acute RAS is attributed to thromboembolism originating from the heart or other sites while the majority of patients with chronic progressive stenosis is the result of atherosclerosis. There are also risk factors associated with RAS that include hypertension, atherosclerosis, advanced age, renal dysfunction, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and smoking.

The symptoms in acute occlusion are fever, flank pain, hematuria, and other related symptoms. Furthermore, hypertension in patients with chronic blockage develops at an atypical age and is unresponsive to antihypertensives.

Patients suspected to have RAS should be evaluated in terms of their overall clinical picture, history and risk factors, and diagnostic studies. There are important laboratory measurements and imaging techniques employed to determine the presence of obstruction and the function of the kidney.

Treatment is selected based on but not limited to the onset of RAS, degree of narrowing, renal dysfunction, and the number of renal arteries affected. Surgical revascularization, angioplasty, and medical drugs may be options depending on the overall clinical presentation of the patient.

Prevention of RAS is based on prevention of atherosclerosis. Therefore, patients are advised to address the modifiable risk factors.

What is renal artery stenosis?

The renal arteries carry blood to the kidneys. Stenosis means blockage. Hence, this condition refers to the disease in which there is a blockage in one or both arteries the supply the kidney(s).

What are its causes?

When the stenosis is acute (rapid onset), the condition is due to a blood clot in the renal artery. When the stenosis is chronic (long-term), the majority of cases is due to atherosclerosis while a few cases are due to fibromuscular dysplasia (in young women).

There are risk factors for developing renal artery stenosis:

• Hypertension
• Older age especially in those over 60
• Kidney impairment
• Atherosclerosis
• Diabetes mellitus
• Smoking

What are the signs and symptoms of this disease?

In acute cases due to blood clots, the symptoms are:

• Fever
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Achy flank pain
• Blood in the urine
• Low volume or no volume of urine
• Acute kidney failure

In chronic cases, the clinical presentation includes:

• Hypertension that presents for the first time prior to the age of 35 or after 55
• Previously well-controlled hypertension that suddenly worsens
• Hypertension does not successfully respond to medications

How is it diagnosed?

The doctor will assess the patient's overall clinical picture, history, and risk factors. Also, the doctor will perform a physical exam and obtain important studies such as:

Labs

• Serum creatinine level
• 24-hour urine collection
• Urinalysis
• Serologic tests such as antinuclear antibodies and complements

Imaging tests

• Spiral computed tomography (CT) angiography
• Magnetic resonance angiography
• Arteriography
• Ultrasonography

How is it treated?

In patients with acute renal artery blockage, the treatment consists of anticoagulation medications, fibrinolytics, and/or surgical procedures.

In patients with chronic blockage, the treatment includes surgical bypass, angioplasty with stent placement, and resection of the affected kidney.

How can it be prevented?

Patients are advised to adhere to lifestyle changes such as the following:

• Eating a healthy diet
• Exercising
• Quitting smoking
• Limiting alcohol intake
• Controlling hypertension
• Controlling diabetes
• Weight loss

All individuals are encouraged to follow-up regularly with their physician.

1. Slovut DP, Olin JW. Fibromuscular dysplasia. New England Journal of Medicine. 2004; 350(18): 1862-1871.
2. Hansen KJ et al. Prevalence of renovascular disease in the elderly: a population-based study. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2002; 36(3): 443-451.
3. Simon N, Franklin SS, Bleifer KH, et al. Clinical characteristics of renovascular hypertension. Journal of American Medical Association. 1972; 220(9): 1209-1218.
4. Guo H, Kalra PA, Gilbertson DT, et al. Atherosclerotic renovascular disease in older US patients starting dialysis, 1996 to 2001. Circulation 2007; 115(1): 50-58.
5. Mailloux LU, Napolitano B, Bellucci AG, et al. Renal vascular disease causing end-stage renal disease, incidence, clinical correlates, and outcomes: a 20-year clinical experience. American Journal of Kidney Disease. 1994; 24(4): 622-629.
6. O'Neil EA, Hansen KJ, Canzanello VJ, et al. Prevalence of ischemic nephropathy in patients with renal insufficiency. American Surgery. 1992 Aug; 58(8); 485-490.
7. Rimmer JM, Gennari FJ. Atherosclerotic renovascular disease and progressive renal failure. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1993; 118(9): 712-719.
8. Scoble JE. The epidemiology and clinical manifestations of atherosclerotic renal. disease. In Renal Vascular Disease. In: Novick AC, Soble JE, Hamilton G, eds. Renal vascular disease. London W.B. Sanders, 1996: 303-314.
9. Valentine RJ, Myers SI, Miller GL, et al. Detection of unsuspected renal artery stenoses in patients with abdominal aortic aneurysms: refined indications for preoperative aortography. Annals of Vascular Surgery. 1993; 7(3): 220-224.
10. Olin JW, Melia M, Young JR, et al. Prevalence of atherosclerosis renal artery stenosis in patients with atherosclerosis elsewhere. American Journal of Medicine. 1990; 88(1N): 46N-51N.
11. Jean WJ, al-Bitar I, Zwicke DL, et al. High incidence of renal artery stenosis in patients with coronary artery disease. Catheterization and Cardiovascular Interventions. 1994; 32(1): 8-10.
12. Weber-Mzell D, Kotanko P, Schumacher M, et al. Coronary anatomy predicts presence or absence of renal artery stenosis. A prospective study in patients undergoing cardiac catheterization for suspected coronary artery disease. European Heart Journal. 2002; 23(21): 1684-1691.
13. Schreiber MJ, Pohl MA, Novick AC. The natural history of atherosclerotic and fibrous renal artery disease. Urologic Clinics of North America. 1984; 11(3):383-92.
14. Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, et al. A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1999; 130(6):461-70.