Systemic

The patient may initially complain of abdominal pain, diarrhea or dysentery and fever. Blood tests may reveal eosinophilia. He may also complain of fatigue, lethargy and skin sores and itching.

CNS

Neurological involvement may present with headaches, nausea, paresthesia, seizures, signs of muscle weakness and paraplegia.

Genitourinary

If the genital involvement is present, genital sores and ulceration may occur. Females may suffer with post coital bleeding and irregular menstruation. If the infection has spread to the bladder or urinary tract, cystitis, urethritis and glomerulonephritis may be present. In these cases, the patient may complain of pelvic pain, hematuria, dysuria, urinary frequency, etc.

• Splenomegaly

  Initial investigation showed signs of liver fibrosis, portal hypertension and splenomegaly. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  In China and Japan and in the Philippines there is a disease known as Asiatic schistosomiasis, which is characterized by cirrhosis of the liver, splenomegaly, ascites, dysentery, progressive anemia, and sometimes [jamanetwork.com]

  […] in late syphilis ( A52.79 ) splenitis, splenomegaly in tuberculosis ( A18.85 ) ICD-10-CM Diagnosis Code I52 Other heart disorders in diseases classified elsewhere 2016 2017 2018 2019 Billable/Specific Code Manifestation Code Code First underlying disease [icd10data.com]

• Fever

  In Katayama fever, serology and microscopy are usually negative, and eosinophilia may be the only feature on examination. [rch.org.au]

  Katayama fever Another primary condition, called Katayama fever, may also develop from infection with these worms, and it can be very difficult to recognize. [encyclopedia.com]

  Clinical presentation of Katayama fever is non-specific and involves respiratory and abdominal symptoms. Recurrence of fever is not unusual despite anti-helminthic treatment. Optimal therapeutic strategy remains to be defined to prevent recurrence. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Signs and symptoms include fever, abdominal pain, eosinophilia and hepatosplenomegaly. If left untreated it may eventually cause liver damage leading to cirrhosis, bladder cancer and kidney failure. [icd9data.com]

• Anemia

  Children with long-term or repeat infections can suffer from anemia and malnutrition, which can contribute to lost days at school and serious learning disabilities. [web.archive.org]

  The most common symptoms are blood in urine and/or feces and an enlarged liver, diarrhea, abdominal pain, weakness, and anemia. [cartercenter.org]

  Heavy S. mansoni infections were found to be associated with increased baseline risk of anemia, although children with moderate or heavy intensity infections had lower risk of physical wasting. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Chills

  Parasitic disease of tropical and subtropical countries; characterized initially by fever, chills, and abdominal and lower back pain; untreated patients may develop jaundice, liver cirrhosis, bladder tumors, and kidney failure. [icd9data.com]

  […] swimming or bathing in water that has flukes in it The flukes burrow into your skin and travel through your blood They eventually end up in small blood vessels inside your intestines or your bladder Symptoms first include an itchy rash, followed by fever, chills [msdmanuals.com]

  Within 1-2 months of infection, symptoms may develop including fever, chills, cough, and muscle aches. Chronic schistosomiasis Without treatment, schistosomiasis can persist for years. [web.archive.org]

• Fatigue

  We report a woman presenting with cough, fatigue, atypical optic neuritis with chiasmitis. She responded partially to corticosteroids and we subsequently found she had a ground-glass lung nodule. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhoea, cough, fever, and fatigue. Hepatospenomegaly and lymphadenopathy may be present. Symptoms usually resolve spontaneously over weeks. [rch.org.au]

  […] or bilharzia, is a common intravascular infection caused by parasitic Schistosoma trematode worms It is prevalent in Africa, the Middle East, South America, and Asia Acute schistosomiasis, or Katayama syndrome, can present as fever, malaise, myalgia, fatigue [bmj.com]

• Malaise

  The intestinal worms produce a wide range of symptoms including diarrhoea and abdominal pain, general malaise, and weakness. Hookworms cause chronic intestinal blood loss that can result in anaemia. [ntd-ngonetwork.org]

  Schistosomiasis, or bilharzia, is a common intravascular infection caused by parasitic Schistosoma trematode worms It is prevalent in Africa, the Middle East, South America, and Asia Acute schistosomiasis, or Katayama syndrome, can present as fever, malaise [bmj.com]

  Symptoms Initial symptoms usually appear within days or weeks after being infected and include a skin rash, fever, headache, muscle ache, bloody diarrhea, cough, malaise, and abdominal pain. [iamat.org]

  Four to 8 weeks after exposure, an acute illness can develop, manifested by fever, malaise, cough, rash, abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, lymphadenopathy, and eosinophilia (Katayama fever). [meddean.luc.edu]

• Cough

  wheezing, shortness of breath and coughing up blood nervous system or brain can cause seizures (fits), headaches, weakness and numbness in your legs, and dizziness Without treatment, affected organs can become permanently damaged. [nhs.uk]

  Within 1-2 months of infection, symptoms may develop including fever, chills, cough, and muscle aches. Chronic schistosomiasis Without treatment, schistosomiasis can persist for years. [web.archive.org]

  Within 1-2 months of infection, symptoms may develop including fever, chills, cough, and muscle aches. Without treatment, schistosomiasis can persist for years. [cdc.gov]

  Symptoms may include inflammation, cough, late-afternoon fever, skin eruption (giant urticaria), and swelling and tenderness of the liver. There may then be blood in the stools and urine in the more acute stage. [britannica.com]

• Dyspnea

  Nasal schistosomiasis, caused by Schistosoma nasalis, is characterized by nasal discharge, snoring and dyspnea. S. haematobium causes hematuria. Human infestation with cercariae causes swimmer's itch, swamp itch. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

• Dry Cough

  Symptoms include: Dry cough with changes on chest X-ray Fever Fatigue Muscle aches Malaise Abdominal pain Enlargement of both the liver and the spleenThe symptoms usually get better on their own, but a small proportion of people have persistent weight [en.wikipedia.org]

• Hemoptysis

  Bronchoscopic diagnosis of Schistosoma japonicum in a patient with hemoptysis. Respir Med. 1991 Jul. 85(4):331-2. [Medline]. Schaberg T, Rahn W, Racz P, Lode H. Pulmonary schistosomiasis resembling acute pulmonary tuberculosis. [emedicine.medscape.com]

• Abdominal Pain

  Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhoea, cough, fever, and fatigue. Hepatospenomegaly and lymphadenopathy may be present. Symptoms usually resolve spontaneously over weeks. [rch.org.au]

  FINDINGS: Less than half of the 65 care providers mentioned one or more major symptoms of intestinal schistosomiasis (abdominal pain 43.1%, bloody diarrhoea 13.9% and bloody stool 7.7%). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Diarrhea

  […] noun another term for bilharzia (the disease) ‘Water-related diseases cause 80 percent of all the world's sicknesses, in the forms of hepatitis A, malaria, diarrhea, dysentery and schistosomiasis.’ [oxforddictionaries.com]

  Depending on where the eggs lodge, manifestations of chronic schistosomiasis can include diarrhea, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, anemia (intestines), hepatosplenism, periportal fibrosis with portal hypertension (liver), urogenital inflammation and [orpha.net]

  In acute infections with heavy infection due to Schistosoma mansoni or Schistosoma japonicum, a mucoid bloody diarrhea accompanied by tender hepatomegaly occurs. [meddean.luc.edu]

  RESULTS: Five of 50 (10%) patients were admitted to the hospital: 1 with myeloradiculopathy, 1 with diffuse pulmonary micronodules, and 3 with diarrhea and dehydration. All 5 had hypereosinophilia and prolonged fever. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] serology), even if asymptomatic, to prevent chronic complications Praziquantel is the treatment of choice [9], and usually very well tolerated with few adverse effects (mild potential adverse effects include dizziness, headache, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea [rch.org.au]

• Nausea

  Transient dizziness, nausea and vomiting were most commonly reported. [doi.org]

  The infection may cause an itchy rash, then after several weeks, fever, chills, muscle aches, fatigue, nausea, abdominal pain, and, later, other symptoms depending on which organ is affected. [msdmanuals.com]

  Four to 8 weeks after exposure, an acute illness can develop, manifested by fever, malaise, cough, rash, abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, lymphadenopathy, and eosinophilia (Katayama fever). [meddean.luc.edu]

• Lower Abdominal Pain

  A case of a 25-year-old woman with 8 weeks amenorrhoea, lower abdominal pain and per vaginal bleeding was managed for ruptured ectopic pregnancy and discovered to have tubal infection by Schistosoma on histological examination is presented. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Lower abdominal pain is frequent, often colicky, and usually referred to the left lower quadrant. Diarrhea is common, usually with occult blood. Sometimes blood is visible in the stools, and diarrhea may alternate with constipation. [doi.org]

• Hematemesis

  Four males died of hematemesis secondary to portal fibrosis. The crude mortality rate of schistosomiasis was is 51/100,000/year. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Palpitations

  Abdominal pain Abdominal swelling ( ascites ) Bloody diarrhea or blood in the stools Blood in the urine and painful urination Shortness of breath and coughing Weakness Chest pain and palpitations Seizures Paralysis Mental status changes Lesions on the [medicinenet.com]

• Hepatosplenomegaly

  Signs and symptoms include fever, abdominal pain, eosinophilia and hepatosplenomegaly. If left untreated it may eventually cause liver damage leading to cirrhosis, bladder cancer and kidney failure. [icd9data.com]

  Clinical features of schistosomiasis range from fever, headache, and lethargy to severe fibro-obstructive pathology leading to portal hypertension, ascites, and hepatosplenomegaly, which can cause premature death. [web.archive.org]

  Hepatosplenomegaly. Signs Abdominal tenderness. Ascites with portal hypertension. Seizures and/or altered mental state (with cerebral infection). [patient.co.uk]

• Hepatomegaly

  Physical examination is notable for hepatomegaly, most prominent in the left hepatic lobe. She also has an urticarial rash in her left foot. [medbullets.com]

  Hospital Universitario Vall d’Hebron, Barcelona, Spain b Servicio de Neumología Pediátrica, Hospital Universitario Vall d’Hebron, Barcelona, Spain Article An 11-year-old black girl from Equatorial Guinea was admitted to our hospital to investigate fatigue, hepatomegaly [revespcardiol.org]

  Overall prevalence of clinical anaemia was 21.6 %, while hepatomegaly and splenomegaly were present in 29.5 and 34.4 % of infected people [ 3 ]. In two villages (i.e. [parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com]

  In acute infections with heavy infection due to Schistosoma mansoni or Schistosoma japonicum, a mucoid bloody diarrhea accompanied by tender hepatomegaly occurs. [meddean.luc.edu]

  Eosinophilia is often present, as well as painful hepatomegaly or splenomegaly. The clinical manifestations of chronic schistosomiasis are the result of host immune responses to schistosome eggs. [wwwnc.cdc.gov]

• Myalgia

  Schistosomiasis, or bilharzia, is a common intravascular infection caused by parasitic Schistosoma trematode worms It is prevalent in Africa, the Middle East, South America, and Asia Acute schistosomiasis, or Katayama syndrome, can present as fever, malaise, myalgia [bmj.com]

  […] cell bladder cancer ( S. haematobium ) portal hypertension ( S. mansoni and S. japonicum ) Prognosis treatment may decrease organ pathology Presentation Symptoms pruritus after swimming ("swimmer's itch") suggestive of larval penetration fever chills myalgias [medbullets.com]

  Acute schistosomiasis is characterized by fever, headache, myalgia, diarrhea, and respiratory symptoms. Eosinophilia is often present, as well as painful hepatomegaly or splenomegaly. [wwwnc.cdc.gov]

  Acute schistosomiasis is characterized by fever, headache, myalgia, diarrhea, and respiratory symptoms. Eosinophilia is present, as well as often painful hepatomegaly or splenomegaly. [web.archive.org]

• Back Pain

  Parasitic disease of tropical and subtropical countries; characterized initially by fever, chills, and abdominal and lower back pain; untreated patients may develop jaundice, liver cirrhosis, bladder tumors, and kidney failure. [icd9data.com]

  A 77-year-old man with back pain and abdominal distention underwent F-NaF PET/CT examination to evaluate potential bone lesions. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Definition (CSP) parasitic disease of tropical and subtropical countries; characterized initially by fever, chills, and abdominal and lower back pain; untreated patients may develop jaundice, liver cirrhosis, bladder tumors, and kidney failure. [fpnotebook.com]

  Although thoracic and back pain is often reported as an early symptom, it was not among the most frequently reported symptoms ( Table I ), affecting only 18 patients (66.7%). [doi.org]

• Skin Rash

  Symptoms can develop a few weeks after someone is infected by the parasite and include: a skin rash a high temperature (fever) above 38C (100.4F) muscle aches Alternatively, more serious symptoms can develop months and possibly years after infection and [web.archive.org]

  Symptoms Initial symptoms usually appear within days or weeks after being infected and include a skin rash, fever, headache, muscle ache, bloody diarrhea, cough, malaise, and abdominal pain. [iamat.org]

  Early stage - Initial penetration of skin by cercariae results in hypersensitivity and a transient pruritic., papular skin rash (swimmer's itch). [meddean.luc.edu]

  These acute symptoms are generally flu-like, including a high temperature and muscle aches, but can also include a skin rash, cough and abdominal pain. Sometimes acute schistosomiasis symptoms can be so mild they go unnoticed. [yourgenome.org]

  Initially, at the site of entry of larvae, there is skin rash with pruritus, lasting for 1-2 days. 2. [histopathology-india.net]

• Pruritus

  […] asymptomatic, to prevent chronic complications Praziquantel is the treatment of choice [9], and usually very well tolerated with few adverse effects (mild potential adverse effects include dizziness, headache, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and pruritus [rch.org.au]

  […] an immune response leading to inflammation and fibrosis Associated conditions squamous cell bladder cancer ( S. haematobium ) portal hypertension ( S. mansoni and S. japonicum ) Prognosis treatment may decrease organ pathology Presentation Symptoms pruritus [medbullets.com]

  Manifestations include mild to moderate pruritus at the penetration site a few hours after exposure, followed in 5 to 14 days by an intermittent pruritic, sometimes papular, eruption. [meddean.luc.edu]

  […] dermatitis), from initiation of egg laying (acute schistosomiasis or Katayama fever) and as a late stage complication of tissue proliferation and repair (chronic schistosomiasis) Hours after cercarial penetration, a papular rash may develop, associated with pruritus [pathologyoutlines.com]

• Eczema

  People with eczema also may be particularly susceptible to bacterial, viral, and fungal skin infections. [niaid.nih.gov]

• Headache

  The reported case is of a 9-year old sukuma-black African boy referred to Bugando Medical Centre with complaints of fever, abdominal pain, headache and generalized body weakness. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  (including those with positive serology), even if asymptomatic, to prevent chronic complications Praziquantel is the treatment of choice [9], and usually very well tolerated with few adverse effects (mild potential adverse effects include dizziness, headache [rch.org.au]

  Clinical features of schistosomiasis range from fever, headache, and lethargy to severe fibro-obstructive pathology leading to portal hypertension, ascites, and hepatosplenomegaly, which can cause premature death. [web.archive.org]

  […] haematobium ) portal hypertension ( S. mansoni and S. japonicum ) Prognosis treatment may decrease organ pathology Presentation Symptoms pruritus after swimming ("swimmer's itch") suggestive of larval penetration fever chills myalgias and arthralgias headache [medbullets.com]

• Dizziness

  Transient dizziness was more commonly reported (lower dose first) Dizziness: 3% versus 8% Minor abdominal pain, headache and vomiting also reported. [doi.org]

  […] be treated (including those with positive serology), even if asymptomatic, to prevent chronic complications Praziquantel is the treatment of choice [9], and usually very well tolerated with few adverse effects (mild potential adverse effects include dizziness [rch.org.au]

  […] trials, high quality evidence).Splitting praziquantel 40 mg/kg into two doses over 12 hours probably has no benefits over a single dose, and in a single trial of 220 participants the split dose caused more vomiting (RR 0.5, 95% CI 0.29 to 0.86) and dizziness [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] peeing, a frequent need to pee, and blood in your pee heart and lungs can cause a persistent cough, wheezing, shortness of breath and coughing up blood nervous system or brain can cause seizures (fits), headaches, weakness and numbness in your legs, and dizziness [nhs.uk]

• Lethargy

  Clinical features of schistosomiasis range from fever, headache, and lethargy to severe fibro-obstructive pathology leading to portal hypertension, ascites, and hepatosplenomegaly, which can cause premature death. [web.archive.org]

  Symptoms include fever, lethargy, the eruption of pale temporary bumps associated with severe itching (urticarial) rash, liver and spleen enlargement, and bronchospasm. [encyclopedia.com]

  He may also complain of fatigue, lethargy and skin sores and itching. CNS Neurological involvement may present with headaches, nausea, paresthesia, seizures, signs of muscle weakness and paraplegia. [symptoma.com]

• Paresthesia

  CNS Neurological involvement may present with headaches, nausea, paresthesia, seizures, signs of muscle weakness and paraplegia. Genitourinary If the genital involvement is present, genital sores and ulceration may occur. [symptoma.com]

  […] schistosomiasis is acute or subacute and presents with lumbar pain with or without radiation to lower limbs, evolving with diminishing of muscular strength in these limbs, with the possibility of presenting, in addition, sensory alterations such as hypoaesthesia, paresthesia [intechopen.com]

• Focal Neurological Deficit

  Both intestinal and urogenital schistosomiasis can cause anemia and malnutrition [6], and occasionally the eggs enter the central nervous system, causing symptoms such as seizures and focal neurological deficits [2], [3], [7]. [doi.org]

• Hematuria

  DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS UROGENITAL SCHISTOSOMIASIS• Renal tuberculosis ("golf-hole" (gaping) ureteral orifice is seen during cystoscopy, Yellow raised nodules) surrounded by a halo of hyperemia in bladder)• Urogenital tract cancer ( total hematuria, hematuria [de.slideshare.net]

  We report a case of a 37-year-old male who attended our hospital for terminal hematuria and irritative voiding symptoms. Schistosoma haematobium eggs were found in his urine sediment. He underwent transurethral resection of the bladder. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] where the eggs lodge, manifestations of chronic schistosomiasis can include diarrhea, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, anemia (intestines), hepatosplenism, periportal fibrosis with portal hypertension (liver), urogenital inflammation and scarring, hematuria [orpha.net]

• Dysuria

  […] eggs lodge, manifestations of chronic schistosomiasis can include diarrhea, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, anemia (intestines), hepatosplenism, periportal fibrosis with portal hypertension (liver), urogenital inflammation and scarring, hematuria and dysuria [orpha.net]

  Here we report a 25 year old male who acquired the infection during travel to Malawi and presented with haematuria and dysuria. He was successfully treated with praziquantel. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms and signs include dysuria, urgency, terminal microscopic and gross hematuria, secondary urinary tract infections, and nonspecific pelvic pain. Chronic urinary carriage and bacteremia with salmonella can occur. [meddean.luc.edu]

  S. haematobium eggs typically lodge in the urinary tract and can cause dysuria and hematuria. Calcifications in the bladder may appear late in the disease. [wwwnc.cdc.gov]

• Frequency of Micturition

  Haematuria, dysuria: The first feature may be frequency of micturition. Initially, haematuria is only terminal but, as it becomes more severe, the blood produces red urine throughout the stream. There is proteinuria. [patient.co.uk]

• Pelvic Pain

  Symptoms and signs include dysuria, urgency, terminal microscopic and gross hematuria, secondary urinary tract infections, and nonspecific pelvic pain. Chronic urinary carriage and bacteremia with salmonella can occur. [meddean.luc.edu]

  Most travellers in this time have no symptoms, but it can cause: blood in the urine or pain passing urine change in the bowel habit and/or blood in the bowel motions tummy/pelvic pain or genital lumps/bumps Years later, long standing disease can lead [fitfortravel.nhs.uk]

  In these cases, the patient may complain of pelvic pain, hematuria, dysuria, urinary frequency, etc. [symptoma.com]

• Macroscopic Hematuria

  Symptoms were reported by 52.9% of the patients; abdominal pain (36%), macroscopic hematuria (11.3%), and genito-urinary symptoms (7.4%) being the most frequently reported. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Genitourinary tract S. haematobiumeggs tend to lodge in the urinary tract causing mucosal damage, dysuria and hematuria. Chronic infections may increase the risk of bladder cancer. [infectiousdiseaseadvisor.com]

Work up includes a physical exam and a detailed history, which my reveal any recent or old history of swimming, camping, travelling to any endemic area, etc.

Laboratory Tests

• Complete blood count
• PCR
• Serology
• Antigen tests: A reagent strip using monoclonal antibodies to detect somatic schistosome antigens in urine has a sensitivity of more than 85% and is suitable for use in the field [9]. 
• Urine and stool analysis
• LFTs
• Kidney function tests

Imaging Studies

• X-ray abdomen
• Ultrasound
• Urography
• Intravenous pyelography
• CT Scan
• Endoscopy (for varices)

Test Results

Test results may confirm the presence of eggs or adult worms wherever present and also the degree of damage they have done.

Once diagnosis has ben made and confirmed by appropriate tests, treatment is immediately begun. Praziquantel is the treatment of choice for all three species (of the worm) [3].

Praziquantel can be used in pregnant and lactating women [10]. In schistosomiasis with neurological involvement, glucocorticoids and anticonvulsants may be added if needed.

In cases of acute schistosomiasis if the patient is treated quickly with antihelminthics, prognosis is very good. All of the complications of the disease can be avoided. But, if the disease has progressed to chronic state, many systems may get involved and prognosis becomes less positive.

It should be noted that even in chronic state, however, with a continued treatment of 3-6 months to even years, many systemic manifestations of the disease may significantly improve. Renal and intestinal pathology also improves with treatment as, usually, do brain lesions (depending upon their location and size) [6].

Most of the mortality comes from hepatic cirrhosis, caused by S.mansoni in Latin America, Africa and the Middle East, and S.japonicum and S.mekongi in East Asia [7]

Complications

Complications of schistosomiasis are widespread. They can be divided systemically:

Gastrointestinal

• Obstruction and/or bleeding
• Cancer of liver or gall bladder
• Malnutrition
• Hepatic schistosomiasis- the second most common cause of esophageal varices [8].

Renal

• Hematuria
• Kidney failure 
• Pyelonephritis

Neurological

• Paralysis
• Transverse myelitis

Urogenital

• Spontaneous abortions
• Bladder cancer
• Hemospermia
• Infertility

Systemic

• Portal hypertension
• Anemia
• Sepsis

Schistosomiasis is an infection caused by Schistosoma species which are worms belonging to phylum Platyhelminthes. These trematodes are second only to malarial parasites as far as endemics are concerned.
                                                          
The life cycle of these worms involves an asexual cycle that occurs in freshwater snails, which serve as the intermediate host to the parasites. The sexual cycle occurs in humans, who serve as their definitive hosts.

The free-swimming young, known as the Cerceria (pl: cercariae), may enter the human host by penetration through the skin. Once they enter, they may move to the gut, vessels, liver, or anywhere else in the body, and the sexual cycle begins.

The cercariae then differentiate into the larva, enter the blood circulation, reach and settle into an organ and mature into adult forms. By now, symptoms may not appear.

The eggs laid by the schistosoma adult females penetrate through gut or bladder wall and colonise there. At this stage, symptoms usually appear.

When the eggs pass out through urine or stool and enter fresh water again, they may hatch, penetrate into the snails (intermediate host) and the asexual cycle begins again.

Types

There are five medically important species of Schistosoma. These are:

• S.mansoni
• S.japonicum
• S.intercalatum
• S.mekongi
• S.haematobium

Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma japonicum and mekongi affect the gastrointestinal tract, whereas Schistosoma haematobium affects the urinary tract [3].

Incidence

It affects almost 210 million people worldwide [1]. Around 200,000 people die of this disease every year.

Age

Studies reveal that although this disease may occur at any age, infants and children are at higher risk because of a less developed immune system. Congenital infection has been defined; Shistosomiasis has been detected in the placenta and newborns have been diagnosed with the disease, thus confirming congenital infection [2].

Sex

Mainly due to increased exposure to potential sources of the worm, males are at a greater risk of contracting this disease.

Schistosomiasis develops when the the worms start to reproduce and multiply. Eggs penetrate the vascular endothelium and travel via the blood to various organs, most commonly affected are the gut, liver and urinary bladder.

Once settled, the parasites cause damage and widespread eosinophilia occurs. The damage is due both to digestion of tissue by proteolytic enzymes produced by the egg and to the host inflammatory response that forms granulomas in the venules [3]. In the acute phase, symptoms are relatively mild. But if the infection progresses to chronic stage, granulomas formation and fibrotic changes occur.

Local tissue invasion of eggs brings about the release of toxins and enzymes and provokes a TH-2 mediated response [4]. The immune response to S.mansoni and S.japonicum eggs in the liver causes the severe pathology of schistosomiasis [5].

Schistosomiasis can be prevented by taking certain precautionary measures such as avoiding swimming, bathing or drinking directly from fresh water in endemic areas. Human waste should be properly eradicated and sprays and other insecticides should be used to kill the snail hosts wherever possible.

Schistosomiasis is the name of an infection caused by parasitic worms of the genus Schistosoma. It is also called Bilharzia, Katamaya Syndrome and Snail Fever. These worms may enter a person's body through contaminated water which is filled with Schistosoma species that are excreted into the water by infected snails, hence the name Snail Fever.

Once the parasitic worms have entered the body, they may cause an infection that presents with varying signs and symptoms, most common of which are diarrhoea, fever and abdominal pain. In some cases, patients may present with skin, genital or neurological symptoms as well.

Schistosomiasis is a very common infection by parasitic worms that live in freshwater, particularly in endemic areas like Africa and some parts of Latin America and Asia. The disease may begin with fever and bowel disturbances but may progress to liver and kidney damage, genital ulceration, skin infections and even neurological problems.

If you live in or have traveled to an endemic area and may have come in direct contact with fresh water there, and suddenly developed any of the symptoms mentioned above, it is recommended that you should visit a doctor immediately to get tested for schistosomiasis.

1. Fenwick A. The Global Burden of Neglected Tropical Diseases. Public Health 2012 126(3):233-6. 
2. Nour NM. Schistosomiasis: Health effects on women. Reviews in obstetrics and gynaecology. 2010;3:28-32
3. Warren L. Michael W, Harriet L, eds. Review of Medical Microbiology and Immunology. 11th edition. Chap.55 358-60
4. Coutinho HM, Acosta LP, Wu HW, et al. Th2 cytokines are associates with persistent hepatic fibrosis in human Schistosoma japonicum infection. J Infect Dis. Jan 15, 2007. 195(2);288-95 
5. Pearce EJ, MacDonald AS: The immune biology of schistosomiasis. Nat Rev Immunol 2:499, 2002
6. Vennervald BJ, Dunne DW. Morbidity in schistosomiasis:an update. Cur Opin Infect Dis. Oct 2004: 17(5);439-47 
7. Ross AG et al.: Schistosomiasis. N Engl J Med 346:1212, 2002 p.771.
8. Robbin and Cotran Pathological Basis of Disease. 8th edition. 2004 p.247
9. Ten Hove RJ, Verweij JJ, Vereecken K, et al. Multiplex real time PCR for the detection and quantification of S.mansomi and S.haematobium infection in stool samples collected in Northern Senegal. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2008;102:179
10. Olds GR. Administration of praziquantel to pregnant and lactating women. Acta Trop, May 2003:86:(2-3):185-95