The development of a spinal epidural abscess (SEA) is commonly a result of a bacterial infection occurring in other sites, most notably the heart (endocarditis), skin (abscesses and furuncles), throat (pharyngitis, retropharyngeal abscess), or dental infections, and the pathogenesis of bacterial dissemination in the epidural space remains incompletely understood [1] [2] [3]. Contiguous infections of the adjacent tissues, such as osteomyelitis, spondylitis, and/or discitis, on the other hand, are important sources of infection as well, whereas medical procedures involving the epidural space (administration of anesthesia) has been reported prior to its appearance in a minority of patients [3]. Several risk factors have been identified - diabetes mellitus, underlying immunosuppression (for eg. acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, or AIDS), intravenous drug abuse, alcoholism, but also trauma, which precede signs and symptoms in up to 35% of cases [1] [2] [3] [4]. SEA most frequently develops in the thoracic and lumbar spine, and the two principal complaints are nonspecific back pain and fever [1] [3]. Radiculopathy, muscle weakness, sphincter incontinence and various sensory and motor deficits are encountered in many individuals, as the diagnosis is often delayed [1] [3]. In up to a third of patients, paralysis may ensue, whereas a fatal onset of sepsis has been documented, strengthening the need for early recognition [1] [4].

• Fever

  The classical triad of symptoms includes back pain, fever and neurological deterioration. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Malaise

  Clinical Presentation  (1) spinal pain,  (2) radicular pain,  (3) muscular weakness, and  (4) complete paralysis  Systemic signs of infection (fever, malaise, irritability, night sweats, and headache) 11. [fr.slideshare.net]

  Fever with rigors, malaise and profuse night sweating were added to the symptoms, two days before admission. Magnetic Resonance imaging clearly showed the lesion and blood and tissue cultures were positive for Brucella melitensis. [casesjournal.biomedcentral.com]

  A spinal epidural abscess is a potentially life-threatening bacterial infection of the epidural space, due to its insidious onset and nonspecific symptoms of fever, back pain and malaise. [symptoma.com]

  Other bacteria that have been implicated include Pseudomonas, Pneumococcus, Escherichia coli, Fusobacterium, and Salmonella. 1 Common early presentations of this disease include fever, malaise, and spinal tenderness. [pediatrics.aappublications.org]

• Lower Extremity Pain

  In spite of appropriate coverage of his bacteremia, the patient’s back and bilateral lower extremity pain intensified, and he eventually developed urinary retention for which he required catheterization. [jss.amegroups.com]

• Fishing

  Cervical spinal epidural abscess, caused by fish bone injury and a secondary infection by Eikenella corrodens which is part of the normal flora, has not been reported. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Fecal Incontinence

  The summary was then compared with those of previously published data.The average age, duration of symptoms before admission, hypoesthesia rate, and urinary/fecal incontinence rate of our patients were 69.5 years old, 21.2 days, 76.9%, and 53.9%, respectively [insights.ovid.com]

  No urine or fecal incontinence. No numbness or tingling. Triage Vital Signs: Physical Exam: The physician noted: “Vital signs are normal.” The patient was morbidly obese. Musculoskeletal: Normal ROM. No tenderness. [blog.thesullivangroup.com]

  Sixty-seven percent complained of localized back pain, and 78% developed neurologic disturbances such as lower-limb paraplegia, urinary or fecal incontinence, or irradiating pain ( table 1 ). [anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org]

  He had no complaints of urinary retention or fecal incontinence. Laboratory tests disclosed elevated inflammatory status (C-reactive protein 3.68 mg/L, white blood cell count 11,780/μL). [surgicalcasereports.springeropen.com]

• Tachycardia

  The patient presented to the emergency department with tachycardia; there was no repeat set of vital signs, and the patient went home with tachycardia. This is a common finding in emergency department medical care. [blog.thesullivangroup.com]

  Examination findings included resting tachycardia and melenic stool. Blood pressure was 95/50 mm Hg. Multiple raised, soft, bluish 0.3 to 1 cm lesions were noted on the trunk and extremities. [consultant360.com]

  Examination of the heart revealed a regular rhythm with borderline tachycardia, but without murmurs, rubs, or gallops. The patient had 2 pulses in all four extremities, and capillary refill was less than 2 seconds. [mdedge.com]

  Objectively, vital signs were notable for tachycardia and elevated core temperature. The patient was ill-appearing, disoriented and unable to provide detailed history. [ddxof.com]

• Back Pain

  We present the case of a previously well man with a one month history of back pain resulting from an epidural abscess. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Low Back Pain

  We herein report the case of a 54-year-old woman who presented with progressive low back pain and fever with a root sign. She underwent surgical decompression, with an immediate improvement of the low back pain. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Spine Pain

  A 9-month substudy was performed in all patients who presented to the ED with spine pain so that the diagnostic test characteristics of the ESR and CRP level could be defined. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Prospective evaluation of a clinical decision guideline to diagnose spinal epidural abscess in patients who present to the emergency department with spine pain. J Neurosurg Spine. 2011;14(6):765–770. doi:10.3171/2011.1.SPINE1091. [wikem.org]

  The classic triad of spine pain, fever, and neurologic abnormality has a sensitivity of 2.0-7.9% for spinal epidural abscess in ED patients. [emergencymedicine.wustl.edu]

• Mid Back Pain

  “Pt. reports mid back pain X 3 days, right left, increasing with cough and laying down. Clear sputum. History of same pain, diagnosed with pneumonia at that time, 3 years ago. She denies shortness of breath and chest pain.” [blog.thesullivangroup.com]

  Ortho, 33; NS, 33 Other consultation, % a 50 33 Table 2 Complete List of Reviewed Cases Paitient Sex/Age, y Initial Presentation a Initial Setting Region Postop b Time to Rectal Exam c Specialty Outcome Complaint Verdict ( ) Surgery Consult Imaging M/# Mid-back [healio.com]

• Right Shoulder Pain

  This 15-year-old patient presented with right shoulder pain in the absence of the fever, back pain, or long-tract signs; therefore, the diagnosis of the spinal pathology was delayed. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Urinary Retention

  Although the epidural abscess was initially treated with antibiotic (cefozopran) for 5 days, he subsequently developed motor weakness, paresthesia and urinary retention. MRI demonstrated spinal cord compression at the C1-C4 level. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Any complaint or finding regarding new onset of sphincter dysfunction (urinary retention or incontinence) should be considered a gigantic red flag for compression of the spinal cord or cauda equina. There may be NO identifiable risk factors! [blog.thesullivangroup.com]

  retention is constipated Fortunately SEA progresses in a relatively linear pattern. [pilchermd.com]

  retention GBS: If no signs of cauda equina and sensory disturbances paralleling ascending weakness (with hyporeflexia) Bilateral weakness of upper extremities Lesion: Central cord syndrome Causes: Syringomyelia, hyperextension injury Findings: Pain and [ddxof.com]

• Urinary Incontinence

  RESULTS: The most common presenting symptoms were neck or back pain, motor deficits, and urinary incontinence. The most common underlying medical condition was diabetes mellitus. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  This is the Epic smartphrase I use: Patient currently denies any recent history of fever, neurologic symptoms, urinary incontinence or retention. Patient denies any history of cancer, IVDU, AAA, AVM, spinal surgery or recent trauma, steroid use. [forums.studentdoctor.net]

  The patient suffered from urinary incontinence and constipation. Two months after surgery the patient had full lower limb motor recovery (grade 5), except for grade 4 knee flexion, nocturnal incontinence, and constipation. [spinalnewsinternational.com]

  Findings such as urinary incontinence and perineal parasthesias can significantly increase the likelihood of the patient having a SEA, however lack of these findings does not reliably rule out the disease. [aliem.com]

• Hyperreflexia

  When evaluating back pain, order an emergency MRI if: Suspected spinal infection (fever, raised ESR or other risk factors for SEA) Cord compression (progressive neuro deficits, hyperreflexia, h/o cancer, bony lesions on X-Ray). [emdidactic.blogspot.com]

  A patient’s reflexes may vary from being absent to hyperreflexia with clonus (rhythmic muscle spasms or contractions) and extensor plantar responses (a/k/a Babinski responses). [matzuslaw.com]

  WikEM: Epidural abscess (spinal) Motor Neuron Signs Upper Motor Neuron: Spasticity Hyperreflexia Pronator drift Babinski Lower Motor Neuron: Flaccidity Hyporeflexia Fasciculation Atrophy Causes of Weakness Lesion Critical Emergent Non-neurological Shock [ddxof.com]

  Complete transverse spinal cord syndrome with paraplegia and sphincter dysfunction Incomplete spinal cord syndromes Unilateral motor or sensory deficits [10] Gait ataxia [10] Reflexes may vary from absent to hyperreflexia with clonus and extensor plantar [emedicine.medscape.com]

  Reflex abnormalities (Early hyperreflexia may give way to diminished or absent reflexes). Respiratory compromise (with cervical lesions). Spinal epidural abscess: Bowel and bladder incontinence. Difficulty urinating (urinary retention). [epainassist.com]

• Unable to Walk

  By this point he was unable to walk, had severe tenderness in the back around the midline and paraspinal region, and severely limited motion of the spine. He also presented with pararesthesia below the inguinal ligaments in both lower limbs. [spinalnewsinternational.com]

  At a 1-yr follow-up examination, the patient was unable to walk without crutches and suffered severe lumbar back pain. [anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org]

• Clonus

  A patient’s reflexes may vary from being absent to hyperreflexia with clonus (rhythmic muscle spasms or contractions) and extensor plantar responses (a/k/a Babinski responses). [matzuslaw.com]

  Complete transverse spinal cord syndrome with paraplegia and sphincter dysfunction Incomplete spinal cord syndromes Unilateral motor or sensory deficits [10] Gait ataxia [10] Reflexes may vary from absent to hyperreflexia with clonus and extensor plantar [emedicine.medscape.com]

  Patellar clonus was present, with hypoesthesia below D 9 level. The chest x-ray was within normal limits. [atmph.org]

• Long Tract Signs

  This 15-year-old patient presented with right shoulder pain in the absence of the fever, back pain, or long-tract signs; therefore, the diagnosis of the spinal pathology was delayed. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

Workup of patients in whom SEAs are the cause of symptoms should start with a thorough patient history that will evaluate the course of illness and assess whether risk factors for a SEA are present. Exclusion of previous trauma, recent dental treatment, drug or alcohol abuse, as well as confirmation of diabetes mellitus or other immunosuppressive diseases is imperative during patient history. The role of the physical examination must be emphasized, as percussion of the back may reveal local tenderness and pain, which can be an important clue in making a presumptive diagnosis, especially if accompanying signs of fever, malaise or neurological deficits are present [3]. A complete blood count (CBC) often reveal anemia, leukocytosis, and a high erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) [1]. Blood cultures are positive in about 60% of patients, and staphylococcus aureus is identified as the principal causative agent, followed by actinomyces spp., various anaerobic bacteria and mycobacterium tuberculosis (known as Pott disease) [1] [3]. Imaging studies, however, are the cornerstone of SEA diagnosis [2]. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the thoracolumbar spine will reveal an abscess in the posterior epidural space in more than two-thirds of cases and is depicted as a homogenous enhancement [3]. Gadolinium-enhanced MRI is frequently implemented in order to obtain an even better view of the epidural space [3] [4]. When the lesion is identified, biopsy, either open or needle aspiration (guided by computed tomography), is usually performed to solidify the diagnosis, as it provides a viable sample for cultivation and confirmation of the causative agent [3].

• Scedosporium

  To describe a rare case of chronic spinal epidural abscess caused by Scedosporium prolificans in an immunocompetent patient. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Mycobacterium Chelonae

  We present a case of a disseminated infection due to Mycobacterium chelonae with scleritis, spondylodiscitis and spinal epidural abscess in a man with a medical background of cellular immunity deficit induced by therapeutic drugs. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

1. Reihsaus E, Waldbaur H, Seeling W. Spinal epidural abscess: a meta-analysis of 915 patients. Neurosurg Rev. 2000;23(4):175-204
2. Krishnamohan P, Berger JR. Spinal epidural abscess. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2014;16(11):436.
3. Chao D, Nanda A. Spinal epidural abscess: a diagnostic challenge. Am Fam Physician. 2002;65(7):1341-1346.
4. Oktenoglu T, Sasani M, Cetin B, et al. Spontaneous pyogenic spinal epidural abscess. Turk Neurosurg. 2011;21(1):74-82.