Both the occlusion of a blood vessel supplying the brain and the rupture of a cerebral vessel occur suddenly and mostly unexpectedly. Neurons are unable to tolerate oxygen and glucose deficiency for prolonged periods of time and neuronal death ensues shortly afterwards. Thus, symptom onset in stroke patients is acute. In general, a cerebrovascular accident may cause any type of neurological deficits, ranging from motor and sensory loss to cognitive impairment and decreased levels of consciousness. The type of deficits to be observed in an individual case largely depends on the location and the extent of the infarction. To some extent, on the basis of clinical symptoms, neurologists may deduce which part of the patient's brain is affected. Commonly observed neurological deficits include:

• Unilateral motor deficits, e.g., face drooping, hemiparesis/hemiplegia, inability to lift ipsilateral arm or abnormal gait
• Contralateral sensory loss
• Contralateral homonymous hemianopia
• Dysphasia
• Dysphagia
• Disturbance of consciousness
• Confusion
• Headache
• Nausea and vomiting

Space-occupying brain edema is a serious and potentially fatal complication of cerebrovascular accidents. It usually occurs between the second and fourth day after the onset of stroke symptoms [6] and possibly involves an exacerbation of neurological deficits. Brain edema is accompanied by an increase of intracranial pressure and thus, edema-mediated brain damage is not necessarily restricted to those brain regions originally affected by the cerebrovascular accident. Decreased levels of consciousness, hypertension, bradycardia and anisocoria may indicate a pathological rise of intracranial pressure due to cerebral edema.

Another possible source of delayed aggravation is reperfusion injury. Despite the fact that stroke therapy aims at recanalization and restoration of blood flow to affected brain regions, it can't currently be excluded that tissue reperfusion contributes to neuroinflammation and neuronal death. Although molecular and cellular events following tissue reperfusion are well described, evidence regarding possibly detrimental effects of reperfusion in stroke patients is still scarce [7].

• Epilepsy

  Patients with a history of epilepsy before the stroke (n 19) or who died in the first day after the stroke (n 17) were excluded from these analyses. [doi.org]

  Our primary aim was to evaluate whether early EEG abnormalities can predict poststroke epilepsy. [onlinelibrary.wiley.com]

  The 5 year actuarial risk of a post stroke seizure in survivors (excluding 19 patients with a history of epilepsy and 3 patients in whom the seizure occurred shortly before death from another cause) was 11.5% (95% confidence interval 4.8% to 18.2%). [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  EEGs ordered in the acute stroke setting may offer valuable information on a patient’s risk of developing epilepsy. [n.neurology.org]

• Hypothermia

  Olsen TS, Weber UJ, Kammersgaard LP: Therapeutic hypothermia for acute stroke. Lancet Neurol 2003, 2 :410–416. PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar 23. [doi.org]

  Accidental hypothermia and impaired temperature homoeostasis in the elderly. Br Med J. 1977 Feb 5; 1 (6057):353–356. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] JOHNSON RH, SMITH AC, SPALDING JM, WOLLNER L. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Evidence supporting the use of therapeutic hypothermia after brain ischemia, however, is limited. A closely related disease to brain ischemia is brain hypoxia. [en.wikipedia.org]

  This sometimes took place daily for up to 2 weeks or until the patient could tolerate the compression. 53 In the past, hypothermia, hypercarbia, and hypocarbia were used for cerebral protection. [stroke.ahajournals.org]

• Difficulty Walking

  Other symptoms include: confusion, difficulty speaking or understanding speech; difficulty seeing with one or both eyes; difficulty walking, dizziness, loss of balance or coordination; severe headache with no known cause; fainting or unconsciousness. [who.int]

  Sudden difficulty walking or dizziness, loss of balance or problems with coordination. Severe headache with no known cause. Stroke is the leading cause of adult disability in the United States. [webmd.com]

  walking or unexplained dizziness or unsteadiness; especially in combination with any of the previously noted symptoms Other less common symptoms of stroke may include sudden nausea or vomiting, fainting, confusion, seizures or coma. [barnesjewish.org]

  They include Sudden numbness or weakness of the face, arm, or leg (especially on one side of the body) Sudden confusion, trouble speaking, or understanding speech Sudden trouble seeing in one or both eyes Sudden difficulty walking, dizziness, loss of [medlineplus.gov]

• Coronary Atherosclerosis

  Effect of very high-intensity statin therapy on regression of coronary atherosclerosis: the ASTEROID trial. JAMA. 2006 ; 295 : 1556–1565. [doi.org]

  Blumenthal and Tae-Hwan Lim, Incidence of subclinical coronary atherosclerosis in patients with suspected embolic stroke using cardiac computed tomography, The International Journal of Cardiovascular Imaging, 27, 7, (1035), (2011). [dx.doi.org]

• Vomiting

  We present a case of a previously healthy 36-year-old man who presented with vertigo and vomiting. MRI showed posterior circulation territory infarction. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Slurred speech or dysarthria Double vision or other vision problems A headache Nausea and or vomiting 2017 Fast Parody Video When it comes to spotting stroke and getting help, the faster, the better. [strokeassociation.org]

  Four common effects of strokes in the cerebellum include the following: inability to walk and problems with coordination and balance (ataxia) dizziness headache nausea and vomiting Effects of a stroke in the brain stem: The brain stem is located at the [web.archive.org]

  * Sudden nausea and vomiting, unrelated to viral illness. * An episode of unconsciousness or convulsions. [curlie.org]

• Nausea

  He developed headache, nausea, vomiting, blurred vision, diplopia, dizziness, and ataxia following the procedure. Initial history and examination suggested that the patient's symptoms were vascular in origin. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Slurred speech or dysarthria Double vision or other vision problems A headache Nausea and or vomiting 2017 Fast Parody Video When it comes to spotting stroke and getting help, the faster, the better. [strokeassociation.org]

  Four common effects of strokes in the cerebellum include the following: inability to walk and problems with coordination and balance (ataxia) dizziness headache nausea and vomiting Effects of a stroke in the brain stem: The brain stem is located at the [web.archive.org]

  * Sudden nausea and vomiting, unrelated to viral illness. * An episode of unconsciousness or convulsions. [curlie.org]

  The symptoms of a hemorrhagic stroke usually appear suddenly and often include: Severe headache Nausea and vomiting. [fsregional.com]

• Dysphagia

  Two hours later, neurological examination revealed dysphagia and mild right-sided hemiparesis, which questioned the causal relationship between the symptoms and alcohol consumption. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Dysphagia or dysarthria. Isolated reduced level of consciousness can result from bilateral thalamic or brain stem ischaemia. [patient.info]

  A dysphagia team evaluates swallowing; sometimes a barium swallow study is necessary. [msdmanuals.com]

• Constipation

  Loss of bowel control or constipation also may occur after a stroke. [web.archive.org]

  Constipation is a common side effect of some pain medications, not drinking enough liquids, or not being as physically active. It’s also possible for the stroke to affect the part of your brain that controls your bowels. [healthline.com]

  […] problems with your speech, reading and writing problems with your sight – you might have double vision or find it hard to see problems with your memory and difficulty concentrating difficulty controlling your bladder and bowel movements (incontinence or constipation [bupa.co.uk]

  Bladder and bowel problems: urinary incontinence, faecal incontinence, constipation. Swallowing problems, poor oral health, malnutrition, dehydration. Sexual dysfunction. Difficulties with activities of daily living: personal, social and vocational. [patient.info]

• Protein S Deficiency

  In other patients, especially younger patients, other causes should be considered, including the following: [7, 42] Hypercoagulable states (eg, antiphospholipid antibodies, protein C deficiency, protein S deficiency, pregnancy) Sickle cell disease Fibromuscular [emedicine.com]

  Patients with severe thrombophilia (antithrombin, protein C, or protein S deficiency; antiphospholipid antibodies; or combined abnormalities) have an increased risk of VTE (adjusted HR, 4.71; 95% CI, 1.34–16.5). 200, 203, 206 The recurrent event is more [doi.org]

• Hypertension

  Hypertension and stroke Hypertension is a major risk factor for stroke, and stroke prevention is the most important achievement of modern antihypertensive treatment. [web.archive.org]

  Abstract Hypertension and stroke Hypertension is a major risk factor for stroke, and stroke prevention is the most important achievement of modern antihypertensive treatment. [doi.org]

  Subscribe to journal Get new issue alerts Strandgaard Svend Original Articles: PDF Only Abstract Hypertension and stroke Hypertension is a major risk factor for stroke, and stroke prevention is the most important achievement of modern antihypertensive [journals.lww.com]

  The largest proportions of chameleons were AMS, syncope, hypertensive emergency, systemic infection, and suspected ACS. Patients diagnosed with hypertensive emergency or AMS had an 8% and 7% chance of having an acute stroke. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Tachycardia

  Decompensation on the ward during thrombolysis with worsening abdominal distension and pain, hypotension and tachycardia prompted a CT angiogram scan, which displayed proximal inferior mesenteric artery occlusion. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] cranial nerve deficits (eg, nystagmus, vertigo, dysphagia, dysarthria, diplopia, blindness), truncal or limb ataxia, spastic paresis, crossed sensory and motor deficits*, impaired consciousness, coma, death (if basilar artery occlusion is complete), tachycardia [msdmanuals.com]

  Ventricular tachycardia represents a series of irregular heartbeats that may cause the heart to completely shut down resulting in cessation of oxygen flow. [en.wikipedia.org]

  There is a higher prevalence of CD in patients with Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS)[ 163 ]; thus these patients should also be screened for CD[ 164 ]. [dx.doi.org]

• Alopecia

  • Young women presents as a photosensitive facial rash with pruritic lower lip cheilitis, • May be a/w conjunctivitis, eyebrow alopecia and pterygion. • Distinguished from actinic cheilitis, which is due to prolonged and excessive exposure to UV irradiation [slideshare.net]

  […] vulgaris 12 086·8 (8150·7 to 17 552·7) 15 067·6 (10 169·9 to 21 752·0) 15 836·0 (10 643·5 to 22 842·6) 31·0 (29·7 to 32·4) * 5·1 (4·3 to 5·8) * 202·3 (136·5 to 292·9) 207·8 (140·1 to 300·1) 212·1 (143·0 to 306·4) 4·9 (4·2 to 5·6) * 2·1 (1·5 to 2·6) * Alopecia [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Diplopia

  The second patient (male, 62 years old) developed diplopia, dysarthria and trunk ataxia after consuming 4-units of alcohol, and his symptoms were attributed to alcohol intoxication. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms associated with high agreement for the diagnosis of stroke or transient ischemic attack vs no vascular event are a sudden change in speech, visual loss, diplopia, numbness or tingling, paralysis or weakness, and non-orthostatic dizziness (κ 0.60 [dx.doi.org]

• Blurred Vision

  He developed headache, nausea, vomiting, blurred vision, diplopia, dizziness, and ataxia following the procedure. Initial history and examination suggested that the patient's symptoms were vascular in origin. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Signs that you may be having a stroke: Sudden numbness or weakness of the face, arm or leg, especially on one side of the body Sudden confusion, trouble speaking or understanding Sudden trouble seeing or blurred vision in one or both eyes Sudden trouble [goredforwomen.org]

  vision · feeling numb or weak (or being paralysed) on one side of the body. [bloodpressureuk.org]

  vision, or trouble with eyesight in one or both eyes Dizziness Severe headache that usually is unlike headaches in the past Confusion Inability to speak, slurred speech, or inability to understand speech Loss of sensation in any part of the body Memory [medicinenet.com]

  Signs of a stroke in older children are often similar to signs in adults, such as: sudden weakness slurred speech blurred vision Babies who have a perinatal stroke often don't show any signs of it until months or years later. [kidshealth.org]

• Visual Impairment

  Visual impairments and hemianopia. Bladder and bowel problems: urinary incontinence, faecal incontinence, constipation. Swallowing problems, poor oral health, malnutrition, dehydration. Sexual dysfunction. [patient.info]

• Anisocoria

  Decreased levels of consciousness, hypertension, bradycardia and anisocoria may indicate a pathological rise of intracranial pressure due to cerebral edema. Another possible source of delayed aggravation is reperfusion injury. [symptoma.com]

• Flat Affect

  Post-stroke emotional difficulties include anxiety, panic attacks, flat affect (failure to express emotions), mania, apathy and psychosis. [en.wikipedia.org]

• Facial Numbness

  A 48-year-old man presented with acute onset of left facial numbness, ataxic gait and double vision. He also complained of chronic right lower leg pain with acute onset a year prior to presentation. His vital signs were within normal limits. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Headache

  Additional brain imaging should be considered in 4-FA-intoxicated patients, not only in the presence of neurological deficits, but also in the case of severe headache. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Slurred speech or dysarthria Double vision or other vision problems A headache Nausea and or vomiting 2017 Fast Parody Video When it comes to spotting stroke and getting help, the faster, the better. [strokeassociation.org]

  […] numbness or weakness, especially on one side of the body; sudden confusion or trouble speaking or understanding speech; sudden trouble seeing in one or both eyes; sudden trouble with walking, dizziness, or loss of balance or coordination; or sudden severe headache [ninds.nih.gov]

• Confusion

  The symptoms of a stroke include sudden numbness or weakness, especially on one side of the body; sudden confusion or trouble speaking or understanding speech; sudden trouble seeing in one or both eyes; sudden trouble with walking, dizziness, or loss [ninds.nih.gov]

  It is frequently confused with peripheral nerve system (PNS) pathologies; misdiagnosis may delay identification of the etiology and treatment of stroke. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Or the symptoms may be confused with those of other conditions that cause similar symptoms. [stanfordhealthcare.org]

  – Other Symptoms You Should Know Sudden NUMBNESS or weakness of face, arm, or leg, especially on one side of the body Sudden CONFUSION, trouble speaking or understanding speech Sudden TROUBLE SEEING in one or both eyes Sudden TROUBLE WALKING, dizziness [strokeassociation.org]

• Dizziness

  A healthy 36-year-old man experienced sudden dizziness while swimming. His dizziness persisted irrespective of the change in position, and then improved during transport. He had no neurological abnormality when he arrived at the emergency room. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  The symptoms of a stroke include sudden numbness or weakness, especially on one side of the body; sudden confusion or trouble speaking or understanding speech; sudden trouble seeing in one or both eyes; sudden trouble with walking, dizziness, or loss [ninds.nih.gov]

  – Other Symptoms You Should Know Sudden NUMBNESS or weakness of face, arm, or leg, especially on one side of the body Sudden CONFUSION, trouble speaking or understanding speech Sudden TROUBLE SEEING in one or both eyes Sudden TROUBLE WALKING, dizziness [strokeassociation.org]

• Seizure

  Occurrence of single and recurrent seizures. 52 patients had one or more post stroke seizures; in 25 the seizures were recurrent. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Neglect

  LESSONS: Allocentric neglect due to injury of IFOF was demonstrated in a stroke patient using DTT. It appears that DTT would be helpful in demonstrating the neglect type and pathway in patients with neglect. Copyright 2017 The Authors. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  This will be associated with improvements in spatial neglect, activities of daily living and quality of life in these patients. [isrctn.com]

  Objectives This systematic review summarizes the effectiveness of mirror therapy for improving motor function, activities of daily living, pain, and visuospatial neglect in patients after stroke. [doi.org]

Brain imaging is the single most important tool to assess cerebrovascular accidents. Both computed tomography scans and magnetic resonance imaging are employed to this end, and specific approaches include computed tomography or magnetic resonance angiography, diffusion- and perfusion-weighted imaging as well as fluid-attenuated inversion recovery [8] [9]:

• In most cases, initial computed tomography scans will be conducted without contrast agents to exclude intracranial hemorrhages as a possible cause of neurological deficits. This technique is widely available and results can be obtained within short periods of time.
• Subsequently, contrast-enhanced computed tomography angiograms may be recorded. They provide detailed information regarding the cause and location of the interruption of blood flow and are thus highly valuable in guiding treatment decisions.
• However, even greater sensitivity of stroke detection is attributed to diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. Major disadvantages of this technique are limited availability and high costs.

The aforementioned imaging methods are also very helpful to reveal the cause of the ischemic or hemorrhagic cerebral infarction, but should be complemented with blood analyses and cardiac examination.

• Intermittent Slow Activity

  Continuous slow activity suggests a more severe brain damage (likelihood of increased mass effect, large lesion or deep hemispheric lesion), whereas intermittent slow activity usually indicates a small lesion and absence of mass effect 15. [scielo.br]

• Rhythmic Slowing

  Rhythmic slow discharges in the electroencephalogram. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1945;8:65. [ Links ] 19. Faure J, Droogleever-Fortuyn, Gastaut H. [scielo.br]

• EEG Slowing

  Gloor et al. 16, investigated the location of structural pathology that produced localized, lateralized or generalized EEG slow activity. [scielo.br]

• Creatine Phosphokinase Increased

  Interestingly, creatine phosphokinase increased after l-carnitine was stopped, indicating that l-carnitine had helped to reduce muscle damage during rehabilitation. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• T Wave Inversion

  An electrocardiogram showed atrial fibrillation, with inferolateral T wave inversion, and left ventricular hypertrophy. A chest X-ray showed features consistent with pulmonary edema. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Brain Edema

  Brain edema is accompanied by an increase of intracranial pressure and thus, edema-mediated brain damage is not necessarily restricted to those brain regions originally affected by the cerebrovascular accident. [symptoma.com]

  This type of stroke requires decompressive craniectomy to avoid life-threatening brain edema and resulting elevation of intracranial pressure. [cosbid.org]

  Animal models demonstrate that persistence of the hematoma in brain tissue results in progressive brain edema, metabolic distress, and potentially other mechanisms, which result in long-term disability. [doi.org]

  Brain imaging aids diagnosing hemorrhage, and it may identify complications such as intraventricular hemorrhage, brain edema, or hydrocephalus. [emedicine.com]

Treatment for stroke includes acute stroke management and surgical management [10]. Acute stroke management includes restoration of homeostasis done by oxygen therapy, blood sugar control with optimal insulin therapy and antihypertensive treatment for hypertensive encephalopathy, hypertensive nephropathy, hypertensive cardiac failure, aortic dissection, preeclampsia and intracerebral hemorrhage. People with acute stroke have to be provided with aspirin, thrombolytic treatment, anticoagulants and tranquilizers. Surgery is necessary for supratentorial hemorrhage or cerebellar hematoma. Carotid endarterectomy is performed for carotid artery stenosis. Surgical decompressive hemicraniectomy is performed for middle cerebral artery infarction, which has to be finished within 48 hours [11].

Prognosis of stroke was observed in 77 patients in a 7 year follow-up study. The study revealed that 31 patients had normal cranial blood flow and the remaining 46 had subnormal cranial blood flow. During the follow-up study, 7 patients died, 3 from stroke and 4 from other causes. Out of 24 patients of subnormal cranial blood flow group, 13 died from stroke and 11 from various diseases. The survival rate was lower consistently in the subnormal cranial blood flow group than in the normal one. The difference in the survival rate was found significant during the 5 and 7 years of follow-up [5].

Etiologies of around 60 patients in the age range of 15 to 40 years with cerebral infarction in a research study by Grindal A.B. et. al. were monitored. Some of the causes for this disease were broadly identified as cardiac, hematologic, inflammatory, occlusive extra cranial vascular disease, postpartum and trauma. Cardiac causes are further divided into rheumatic heart disease with or without atrial fibrillation, sub-acute bacterial endocarditis, atrial fibrillation without rheumatic heart disease and myocardial infarction.

Hematologic causes are divided into polycythemia, sickle cell disease, thrombocytosis and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Inflammatory cause is subdivided into systemic lupus erythematosus, polyarteritis nodosa and syphilis. Other vascular causes of cerebral infarction are atherosclerosis-atherothrombosis, arterial dissection, cardio embolism, vasculitis, meningitis and fungal vasculitis, hypercoagulability, inherited metabolic disorders, and fibromuscular dysplasia and other angiopathies [2].

In a research sturdy conducted in 1994, hospital and population statistics show that cerebral infarction indicates about 80 percent of all strokes. A decrease in mortality associated stroke and cerebral infarction in particular was observed in many countries in the recent period. Research studies have explained that treatment of severe or moderate hypertension reduces the stroke incidence. Annual risk of cerebral infarction is found to be related to asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis, which is estimated to be between 1 and 2 percent [3].

The infarction on the first day appears as poorly demarcated area of softening. In the last stages of edema, the infarction appears hypodense and bright on T2 magnetic resonance imaging. The tissue of infarction will get demarcated sharply and will soften progressively. The tissue starts disintegrating from the second week and a cavity is created at that place. The anatomy of vascular territories indicates the size and location of the infarction. Microscopic evaluation during the first 24 to 48 hours discloses anoxic neurons, vacuolization of the white matter due to disentanglement of swellings of myelin and axon. Initially, there was inflammation around the blood vessels due to the release of arachidonic acid and other fatty acids. As the infarction degenerates, proliferation of peripheral region endothelial cells will continue and the capillaries will form a dead tissue [4].

Appropriate risk assessment tool is used for assessing cardiovascular risk. Lifestyle factors like dietary advice, physical activity, weight management, alcohol consumption, and cessation of smoking are performed to prevent the disease. Drug treatment for hypertension, anti-thrombosis, lipid lowering and aspirin are helpful in primary prevention. Secondary prevention is possible with the use of dipyridamole, clopidogrel and anti-lipid agents [12].

Cerebral infarction of the brain is associated with the tiny spheroidal necrosis of the nervous tissue in the ischemic area with the distribution of the arterial vessel. Ischemia precedes infarction and both are reversible. If infarction is permanent, then there will be irreversible damage to the nervous tissue. Necrosis of nervous tissue needs not occur in all the ischemic cases. Various cell types have different intensities of sensitivities to ischemia. Penumbra is the peripheral area of the ischemic region, where the cells survive for a few hours under risk, if the blood circulation is not established. When a vessel is occluded, the entire region that it is supplying does not become ischemic as collateral circulation occurs effectively and quickly.

Circle of Willis and anastomoses of carotid arteries are examples of effective collateral circulation. Main reasons for cerebral infarction include atherosclerotic obstruction of bigger vessels, embolic blocking of distal vessels, arterial spasm and vasculitis. Common symptoms include stroke accompanied by neurological syndromes [1].

• Definition: Tiny spheroidal necrosis of nervous tissue in the ischemic area with the arterial vessel distribution is called as cerebral infarction of the brain. If the damage due to infarction is permanent in the nervous tissue, then it is irreversible. 
• Cause: Some of the causes of cerebral infarction include atherosclerosis, vasculitis, cardio-embolism, systemic lupus erythematosus, vascular spasm, meningitis, sickle cell disease, hypercoagulability and inherited metabolic disorders.
• Symptoms: Some of the symptoms of cerebral infarction are contralateral hemiplegia that is initially flaccid and then become spastic, sensory loss, homonymous hemianopia and dysphasia. 
• Diagnosis: Initial diagnosis of cerebral infarction is done by blood tests, ventricular hypertrophy is evaluated by electrocardiogram, chest X-ray and echocardiography are utilized for assessing large left atrium and myocardial infarction. Brain imaging is performed for patients having undergone blood tests and those with severe headache.
• Treatment: Acute stroke management for cerebral infarction is done by oxygen therapy, antihypertensive treatment and optimal insulin therapy. Acute stroke is treated with anticoagulants, thrombolytic treatment, aspirin, and tranquilizers. Surgery is suggested for cerebellar hematoma. 

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