In individuals with GCA, the most commonly presented conditions include headache, fever, bruits, tenderness and sensitivity of the scalp, claudication of the jaw, claudication of the jaw and necrosis, reduction in visual acuity, acute visual loss, diplopia, acute tinnitus and polymyalgia rehumatica in 50% of the cases [7].

With the inflammation, the supply of blood to the eye will be affected and this is the main cause of blurred vision and sudden blindness.

In most cases involving the eye, arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy is caused due to the involvement of the ophthalmic artery. Since loss of vision in both eyes can happen abruptly, this case is regarded as a medical emergency.

• Pain

  An 81-year-old woman with limited mouth opening and pain upon chewing was referred to the Orofacial Pain Clinic at Nihon University Dental Hospital. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms include fever; fatigue; headache; visual impairment; pain in the jaw and tongue; and aggravation of pain by cold temperatures. [icd9data.com]

• Fever

  Fever of unknown origin (FUO) at the present time is most frequently caused by neoplasm and less commonly by infection. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms include fever; fatigue; headache; visual impairment; pain in the jaw and tongue; and aggravation of pain by cold temperatures. [icd9data.com]

  […] giant cell arteritis a chronic vascular disease of unknown origin, occurring in the elderly, characterized by severe headache, fever, and accumulation of giant cells in the walls of medium-sized arteries, especially the temporal arteries. [web.archive.org]

• Weight Loss

  He also suffered body weight loss, general malaise and many typical manifestations of giant cell arteritis, such as jaw claudication, a tender, non-pulsating engorgement of his temporal arteries, and a highly elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate and [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  loss, and arthralgia — called also temporal arteritis [merriam-webster.com]

  loss and fatigue Main risk is that inflammation of the arteries to the eye causes irreversible blindness, so again must be treated promptly Diagnosis: Think of it! [ole.bris.ac.uk]

• Fatigue

  Accompanying neck pain was present, together with continuous lethargy and fatigue. Physical examination revealed decreased cutaneous elasticity and muscle mass, and a depressive mood state was present. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms include fever; fatigue; headache; visual impairment; pain in the jaw and tongue; and aggravation of pain by cold temperatures. [icd9data.com]

  Early symptoms of giant cell arteritis resemble the flu: fatigue, loss of appetite, and fever. [fpnotebook.com]

  […] arteritis : arterial inflammation that often involves the temporal arteries and may lead to blindness when the ophthalmic artery and its branches are affected, is characterized by the formation of giant cells, and may be accompanied by fever, malaise, fatigue [merriam-webster.com]

• Anemia

  It presents with headache, fever, elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate and anemia. If untreated, complications like ischemic optic neuritis may even lead to blindness. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] disease: Necrotizing vasculitides Giant-cell or temporal arteritis occurs chiefly in older people and is manifested by severe temporal or occipital headaches (in the temples or at the back of the head), mental disturbances, visual difficulties, fever, anemia [britannica.com]

  Tests of the red blood cells may show mild anemia. Sometimes blood tests for liver function will also be abnormal. The definitive diagnostic test is a temporal artery biopsy. [encyclopedia.com]

• Loss of Appetite

  Definition / general Sudden loss of vision in one eye, low grade fever, loss of appetite and general weakness May be due to obstruction of posterior ciliary artery Microscopic (histologic) description Granulomatous inflammation of arteries with discontinuous [pathologyoutlines.com]

  They almost always affect people over the age of 50.early symptoms of giant cell arteritis resemble the flu: fatigue, loss of appetite, and fever. [icd9data.com]

  Jaw pain Tongue pain Shoulder and hip pain Pain and stiffness in the neck Muscle aches Flu-like symptoms Excessive sweating General ill feeling Loss of appetite Sensitive, tender scalpc Weakness or excessive tiredness Weight loss Mouth sores Dry cough [migraine.com]

  […] by permanent, irreversible vision loss Muscle aches in the upper arms or shoulders, hips, upper thighs, lower back, and buttocks Loss of appetite or weight loss Often, tempeoral arteritis can be associated with an entity called polymyalgia rheumatica [my.clevelandclinic.org]

  Early symptoms of giant cell arteritis resemble the flu: fatigue, loss of appetite, and fever. [fpnotebook.com]

• Dysphagia

  A 77-year-old man developed dysphagia, hoarseness, dysgeusia, gait unsteadiness, and right temporalgia; neurological examination revealed multiple cranial neuropathies. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Tongue numbness or ulceration, cough, sore throat, dysphagia, hoarseness, and rare respiratory difficulties have all been described. [rheumaknowledgy.com]

  14 Tongue claudication 1 6 Sore throat 1 9 Vasculitis on angiogram 1 NA Stiffness of hands and wrists 1 NA Decreased temporal artery pulse NA 46 Erythematous, nodular, swollen arteries NA 23 Central nervous system abnormalities NA 15 Synovitis NA NA Dysphagia [aafp.org]

• Nausea

  A variety of systemic symptoms are also often present, including nausea, vomiting, chills, dizziness, and loss of weight. Temporal arteritis is not a common diagnosis in maxillofacial practice. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Seek care immediately or call 911 if: You have any of the following signs of a heart attack: Squeezing, pressure, or pain in your chest and any of the following: Discomfort or pain in your back, neck, jaw, stomach, or arm Shortness of breath Nausea or [drugs.com]

• Vascular Disease

  […] giant cell arteritis a chronic vascular disease of unknown origin, occurring in the elderly, characterized by severe headache, fever, and accumulation of giant cells in the walls of medium-sized arteries, especially the temporal arteries. [web.archive.org]

  Author information 1 Virology, School of Translational Medicine, University of Manchester, Manchester UK. [email protected] Abstract The possibility of infectious triggers stimulating the development of inflammatory vascular diseases has generated [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Cutaneous vascular diseases. In: James WD, Elston DM, Treat JR, Rosenbach MA, Neuhaus IM, eds. Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2020:chap 35. Koster MJ, Matteson EL, Warrington KJ. [nlm.nih.gov]

  Chaer, Nonarteriosclerotic Vascular Disease, Surgical Clinics of North America, 10.1016/j.suc.2013.04.003, 93, 4, (833-875), (2013). [doi.org]

• Temporal Artery Pain

  artery pain, mononeuropathy Polymyalgia rheumatica – may occur in up to 50% of patients Manifests with severe stiffness and pain in shoulders, thighs, and buttocks Dermatologic, renal, pulmonary – rarely involved ARUP Lab Tests Tests generally appear [arupconsult.com]

  Meta-analyses of several studies have determined that both jaw claudication and diplopia are the most diagnostically powerful indicators of GCA. [56] [57] Furthermore, temporal artery abnormalities such as temporal artery pain and an abnormal temporal [eyewiki.aao.org]

• Jaw Claudication

  While physicians should be alert to the significance of visual symptoms or jaw claudication, ophthalmologists should be ready to facilitate prompt TABs when appropriate. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Goodman BW, Shepard FA (1983) Jaw claudication. Its value as a diagnostic clue. [doi.org]

• Diplopia

  Classic symptoms include polymyalgia rheumatica, new-onset headache, jaw claudication, and visual symptoms such as diplopia and amaurosis fugax. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Patients with jaw claudication, diplopia, and an abnormal temporal artery on examination are more likely to have a temporal artery biopsy that is positive for GCA. GCA is unlikely if levels of inflammatory markers are normal. [bestpractice.bmj.com]

  Ocular symptoms : These were amaurosis fugax in 26%, visual loss of varying severity in 92%, diplopia in 7% and eye pain in 7%. These occurred in various combinations. Amaurosis fugax was the only presenting visual symptom in 10%. [web.archive.org]

• Visual Impairment

  Ocular involvement may cause visual impairment or even blindness. Called also cranial, granulomatous, or temporal arteritis and Horton arteritis, disease, or syndrome. Copyright 2007. An Elsevier publication. All rights reserved. [web.archive.org]

  Recently, we encountered a 76-year-old Taiwanese patient who presented with right visual impairment and marked pale swelling of his right disc. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms include fever; fatigue; headache; visual impairment; pain in the jaw and tongue; and aggravation of pain by cold temperatures. [icd9data.com]

  Symptoms include FEVER; FATIGUE; HEADACHE; visual impairment; pain in the jaw and tongue; and aggravation of pain by cold temperatures. [fpnotebook.com]

• Scotoma

  Visual disturbances include diplopia, scotomas, ptosis, blurred vision, and loss of vision (which is an ominous sign). [merckmanuals.com]

  The affected eye will often show an altitudinal visual field defect, but arcuate and cecocentral scotoma’s have also been reported. Case History Perform a thorough and careful case history when confronted with an acute ischemic optic neuropathy. [reviewofoptometry.com]

  […] exertion Audible pulsations or bruits over the axillary region Cramping or aching legs while walking which improves with resting Dry cough Double vision Other complications Limb claudication Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) or stroke Scintillating scotoma [lecturio.com]

• Unilateral Blindness

  blindness; shares many of the symptoms of polymyalgia rheumatica Applies To Cranial arteritis Horton's disease Temporal arteritis ICD-9-CM Volume 2 Index entries containing back-references to 446.5 : [icd9data.com]

  […] constitutional symptoms, particularly severe headache, and sometimes sudden unilateral blindness. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  Visual symptoms of diplopia, blurred vision, or amaurosis fugax may antedate development of sudden unilateral blindness. Many patients describe a fullness or pressure sensation behind their eyes. [rheumaknowledgy.com]

• Eye Pain

  Jaw claudication, eye pain, photophobia, diplopia, and even blindness may accompany the temporal symptoms. As many as 20% to 60% of inadequately treated or untreated patients will lose their vision. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Ocular symptoms : These were amaurosis fugax in 26%, visual loss of varying severity in 92%, diplopia in 7% and eye pain in 7%. These occurred in various combinations. Amaurosis fugax was the only presenting visual symptom in 10%. [web.archive.org]

  Other than vision loss, patients may complain of diplopia, eye pain, or symptoms from cranial neuropathies (i.e. ptosis, anisocoria, diplopia). [eyewiki.aao.org]

• Myalgia

  The following clinical findings were essential for the diagnosis: advanced or old age of the patient, massive headache in the temporal and/or occipital regions, myalgia primarily in the shoulders and the neck that responded relatively poorly to treatment [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Presentation [ 4 ] GCA typically presents with recent onset of temporal headache, myalgia, malaise or fever. Typical features may be absent or subtle. [patient.info]

  Symptoms may include low-grade fever, muscle pain (myalgia), low levels of circulating red blood cells (mild anemia), and/or severe stiffness, especially in the morning or after a period of inactivity (gel phenomenon). [rarediseases.org]

  Distinct tongue numbness and vertigo have also been reported. [38] Myalgias, especially of the proximal muscles, are also associated with GCA. [eyewiki.aao.org]

• Neck Pain

  A 75-year-old woman presented with pain on both sides of the head. The pain occurred in the form of agonizing attacks 2-3 times a week. Accompanying neck pain was present, together with continuous lethargy and fatigue. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Temporal arteritis involves a variety of symptoms including tenderness in the scalp, headaches, pain in one or both temples, fatigue, double vision, neck pain, weight loss and pain in the jaw, especially while chewing. [kadrmaseyecare.com]

  He was referred for physical therapy, which helped the neck pain but had no effect on his headache. [headaches.org]

  Diagnostic work-up of an elderly patient with unilateral head and neck pain. A case report. [physio-pedia.com]

  Presentation People with GCA can typically complain of the following ( Salvarani 2005 ; Smetana 2002 ): New onset unilateral headache Scalp pain or tenderness Jaw claudication Neck pain Visual complaints such as transient visual obscurations, visual loss [doi.org]

• Muscle Weakness

  They include: inflammation and damage to other blood vessels in the body development of aneurysms, including aortic aneurysms vision loss eye muscle weakness blindness stroke An aortic aneurysm can lead to massive internal bleeding. [healthline.com]

  Muscle weakness, cataracts and skin bruising also can occur with corticosteroid use. See your doctor often to check for side effects. [rheumatology.org]

  Muscle weakness. Mood and behavioural changes. Some people actually feel better in themselves when they take steroids. However, steroids may aggravate depression and other mental health problems and may occasionally cause mental health problems. [patient.info]

  weakness Muscular weakness 0001324 Myalgia Muscle ache Muscle pain [ more ] 0003326 Nystagmus Involuntary, rapid, rhythmic eye movements 0000639 Optic atrophy 0000648 Paresthesia Pins and needles feeling Tingling [ more ] 0003401 Pericarditis Swelling [rarediseases.info.nih.gov]

• Shoulder Pain

  Polymyalgia rheumatica is an infrequently occurring, inflammatory condition that causes pain or aching in the large muscle groups, especially around the shoulders and hips. Polymyalgia literally means "many muscle pains." [webmd.com]

  She was instructed to begin range-of-motion exercises for her shoulders. The patient demonstrated a stunning response to prednisone, with almost complete cessation of all neck, shoulder and arm pain. [aafp.org]

  Symptoms of PMR include bilateral aching neck, shoulder pain or stiffness and pelvic pain or stiffness. Additionally, many patients with PMR note constitutional symptoms such as fever, weight loss, and anorexia. [eyewiki.aao.org]

• Arthralgia

  […] often involves the temporal arteries and may lead to blindness when the ophthalmic artery and its branches are affected, is characterized by the formation of giant cells, and may be accompanied by fever, malaise, fatigue, anorexia, weight loss, and arthralgia [merriam-webster.com]

  […] thrombocyte morphology Platelet abnormalities 0001872 Abnormality of the pleura 0002103 Amaurosis fugax 0100576 Aortic dissection Tear in inner wall of large artery that carries blood away from heart 0002647 Arterial thrombosis Blood clot in artery 0004420 Arthralgia [rarediseases.info.nih.gov]

  In NAION, patients will usually not note any associated systemic symptoms such as headache, jaw claudication, scalp tenderness, weight loss, anorexia, fever, or myalgias/arthralgias. [eyewiki.aao.org]

• Night Sweats

  Fever, anorexia, weight loss, and night sweats may also be present. With TA, respiratory symptoms occur in 9% and are the presenting feature in 4%. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  sweats Joint or muscle aches Temporal arteritis may cause: Headaches Scalp pain or tenderness over the artery Jaw or tongue pain Pain when chewing Vision problems: Partial or complete vision loss Effect like a window shade closing over your eyes Double [cancercarewny.com]

  Characteristically, patients have profound constitutional symptoms with fever, weight loss, and occasional night sweats. Moderate to severe headache, particularly in the temporal or occipital area, is reported by >90% of patients. [rheumaknowledgy.com]

• Increased Sweating

  Increased sweating Profuse sweating Sweating Sweating profusely Sweating, increased [ more ] 0000975 Mediastinal lymphadenopathy Swollen lymph nodes in center of chest 0100721 Meningitis 0001287 Muscle weakness Muscular weakness 0001324 Myalgia Muscle [rarediseases.info.nih.gov]

• Tenderness of the Scalp

  He has a moderate headache and some mild tenderness along his scalp arteries. His ESR is 110 and his CRP is 150. You diagnose temporal arteritis and decide to give him steroids. [bestbets.org]

  Erythema and the affected artery become evident as a hard, pulsating, tender bulge under red or cyanotic skin. Scalp gangrene may also be present. [dermis.net]

  Other symptoms may include: Fatigue Fever Jaw pain that may become worse after chewing Tenderness at the scalp or temples Vision problems, such as double vision, blurry vision, or transient (brief) vision loss; if this is not treated, it could be followed [my.clevelandclinic.org]

  Symptoms specifically related to the inflamed arteries of the head include: Headaches, often severe Tenderness of the scalp or temples Double vision Temporary or sustained vision loss (like having a curtain pulled partly over the eye) Dizziness or problems [arthritis.org]

• Facial Pain

  Trigeminal neuralgia (TN) complicated with temporal arteritis (TA) is not a common disease, but it is a very important syndrome to consider for diagnosing facial pain in individuals older than 50 years. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms of temporal arteritis Headaches, throbbing pain on one side or in back of head Fever Vision changes, blurred vision or double vision Loss of vision in one or both eyes – which can be permanent Hearing loss Facial pain Joint pain or stiffness [migraine.com]

  Baker for a consultation today: Disturbance in vision (blurred vision, double vision) Acute vision loss (sudden loss of vision) Fever Excessive sweating Throbbing headache General ill feeling Loss of appetite Facial pains Mouth sores Depression Unintentional [susanbakermd.com]

  GCA should be suspected in anyone over the age of 50 years with headache, scalp tenderness, transient visual symptoms or unexplained facial pain. Acute severe sight impairment occurs in up to 20% of patients. [patient.info]

• Headache

  Clinical features are headache, visual loss, ophthalmoplegia, jaw claudication, temporal headache, with tenderness and thickening on the affected temporal artery. We present 3 cases of tongue necrosis due to this granulomatous arteritis. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Other useful predictive features include: Temporal headache. Scalp tenderness. ESR significantly elevated. Anaemia. Symptoms The history is usually short and the most common symptoms include: Headache: present in more than 85% of patients. [patient.info]

• Stroke

  Ischemic stroke is a serious though relatively rare complication of GCA. Similar cases have been reported, in which ischemic stroke developed despite or possibly due to steroid therapy. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  It is critical to report any symptoms to your doctor and to receive early treatment in order to prevent serious problems, including permanent vision loss and stroke. [web.archive.org]

• Throbbing Headache

  Call your provider if you have: Throbbing headache that does not go away Loss of vision Other symptoms of temporal arteritis You may be referred to a specialist who treats temporal arteritis. There is no known prevention. [nlm.nih.gov]

  Typically, people have a severe and often throbbing headache, pain in the scalp when they brush their hair, and pain in facial muscles when they chew. Without treatment, blindness can result. [msdmanuals.com]

  Call your provider if you have: Throbbing headache that does not go away Loss of vision Other symptoms of temporal arteritis There is no known prevention. Arteritis - temporal; Cranial arteritis; Giant cell arteritis Hellmann DB. [medlineplus.gov]

  The most common symptoms of GCA include persistent, throbbing headaches, tenderness of the temples and scalp, jaw pain, fever, joint pain, and vision problems. Early treatment is vital to prevent serious complications such as blindness or stroke. [vasculitisfoundation.org]

• Dizziness

  A variety of systemic symptoms are also often present, including nausea, vomiting, chills, dizziness, and loss of weight. Temporal arteritis is not a common diagnosis in maxillofacial practice. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Other symptoms include headaches, pain and tenderness over the temples, double vision or visual loss, dizziness, and problems with coordination and balance. [icd9data.com]

  Dizziness. Problems with coordination and balance. Pain in the jaw and tongue, especially when eating. Difficulty in opening the mouth wide. Scalp scores (rare cases). [web.archive.org]

• Confusion

  Acute symptoms may be confused with stroke Initiate appropriate monitoring and oxygen Patients may be hypotensive from 1 of the rare sequelae (aortic dissection, abdominal aortic a... [5minuteconsult.com]

  People may retain fluids, their appetite may increase, and they may become confused. Blood sugar may increase, sometimes causing diabetes, and bone density may decrease. Blood pressure may increase. [merckmanuals.com]

  […] stiffness in the neck Muscle aches Flu-like symptoms Excessive sweating General ill feeling Loss of appetite Sensitive, tender scalpc Weakness or excessive tiredness Weight loss Mouth sores Dry cough, throat pain Bulging, thick, tender artery on one side Confusion [migraine.com]

  Diseases, www.niams.nih.gov The Arthritis Foundation, www.arthritis.org When to seek medical advice Call your healthcare provider right away if any of these occur: Worsening symptoms Numbness or weakness of the face, one arm, or one leg Slurred speech, confusion [fairview.org]

Palpitations in the head denote temporal arteries regardless of presence of pulsation. In many cases, the temporal area remains tender. All around the body, decreased pulses may be found. During fundal examinations, evidence of ischemia may be noted [8].

Some of the laboratory tests that must be carried out include:

• Platelets count (may be elevated)
• C-reactive protein tests ( this may also be elevated)
• ESR ( Erythrocyte sedimentation rate will show readings of >6omm/hour
• Liver function tests (this will often show raised alkaline phosphatase)

• Thrombocytosis

  Laboratory abnormalities associated with TA include a highly elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, anemia, and thrombocytosis, and mildly increased alkaline phosphatase/serum transaminases. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Hayreh 2003 points out that although essential thrombocytosis has increased thrombotic morbidity, the thrombocytosis in GCA is reactive and thus an antithrombotic agent is likely to have little effect. [doi.org]

  […] changes or new onset localized headache Elevated inflammatory marker(s) Criteria for Diagnosis Histologic diagnosis – temporal artery biopsy showing segmental inflammation Laboratory Testing Nonspecific testing – helpful in excluding other diagnoses CBC – thrombocytosis [arupconsult.com]

  In the setting of clinical suspicion and a raised ESR, thrombocytosis has a relatively high specificity for distinguishing GCA from other diseases [7]. [physio-pedia.com]

  Anemia of chronic disease, decreased serum albumin, polyclonal gammopathy, and reactive thrombocytosis are also seen. Elevation in liver tests, particularly alkaline phosphatase, is common. [rheumaknowledgy.com]

• Cerebral Angiitis

  Other intracranial vasculopathies such as primary cerebral angiitis, atherosclerosis or reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome must be differentiated from an intracranial manifestation of GCA. [doi.org]

• Giant Cell Arteritis on Arterial Biopsy

  This test can show if you have anemia, which is common in people who have giant cell arteritis. Temporal artery biopsy. For this test, a surgeon takes a small tissue sample from a blood vessel in your temple and checks it for inflammation. [northshore.org]

Oral corticosteroids are highly and rapidly effective in temporal arteritis but are often associated with adverse effects.

Full recovery is the common result when there is adequate and prompt therapy. In recent years the reduced rate of neuro-ophthalmologic complications show a marked improvement in the recognition and treatment of the condition [9]. This explains why blindness can now be regarded as a rare complication.

If left untreated, the prognosis for individuals with this condition is very poor. Blindness and death is very common resulting from stroke, myocardial infarction and dissecting aortic aneurysm.

The specific cause of these autoimmune disorders is yet to be documented. Parvovirus B19 and mycoplasma infection have been denoted as possible causes but this is yet to be proven [4].

Between 1950 and 1975 in the USA, the distribution of GCA in Minnesota increased from 5.1 to 17.4 cases per 100,000 individuals each year in adults aged 50 years and above. The increase was attributed to improved rate of accurate diagnosis and clinical awareness [2]. By January 1, 1975 the prevalence was placed at 133 cases per 100,000 adults aged 50 and above.

Internationally, there have been few publications of epidemiological studies but the incidence rates do not vary greatly within the defined susceptible age bracket. The highest incidence can be traced to Scandinavia where 23-33 people per 100,000 are affected amongst people aged 50 and above.

The prevalence is heavily dependent on the number of individuals aged 50 years and above. The average age of onset is 75 years. Therefore, countries where there is lower life expectancy show a lower prevalence.

Although GCA can lead to MI, stroke or death it is yet to be associated with a statistically significant increase in any of these. GCA leads to death in generally 2% of cases. As is to be expected, the severity of the vasculitis and topographic extent is greater in fatal cases than what is obtainable in nonfatal cases.

It is however, difficult to quantify the number of patients who died indirectly or directly due to extensive use of corticosteroids [3].

There has not been any proven racial predisposition to GCA. However, the epidemiologic studies are limited due to the fact that they have mostly been performed on predominantly Caucasian population. This can signify that the condition is more common amongst this race.

The ration of occurrence in sexes is 3.7:1 against females. The average age for the onset of the condition is 75 years. The condition is the most common systemic vasculitis affecting elderly patients. It is rarely described in individuals younger than 40 years of age.

The condition is generally a disease affecting cellular immunity. The CD4+ T helper cells reacting to an antigen presented by macrophages mediates vasculitic damage. The internal elastic lamina is affected by the primary inflammatory response. The hallmark of GCA is the multinucleated giant cells and these may contain elastic fiber fragments. The antigen that triggers the condition is still not known but elastin is suspected by experts [5].

In many patients, the superficial temporal artery is involved. This offers a convenient biopsy site. However the topographic distribution of the condition extends towards the aortic arch and its branches. This reflects its predilection for the internal elastic lamina.

Since intracranial arteries do not have an internal elastic lamina, GCA does not cause widespread intracranial cerebral vasculitis. As well as the vertebral and carotid arteries, GCA involves cervicocephalic arteries. Below is a look at how the condition affects arteries [6].

• Internal, external and common internal carotid artery involvement occurs extracranially. On rare occasions, proximal intracranial segments get affected.

• The involvement of the pulmonary artery has been described in many cases.

• Ischemic mononeuropathies, crural infarction, renal infarction and intestinal infarction are common complications documented when the femoral, iliac, renal, mesenteric and the descending aorta arteries are affected. This is less often described.

• Vertebral arteries are frequently involved and the superficial temporal arteries are affected in fatal cases. Basal artery involvement is rare however.

• The posterior ciliary and ophthalmic arteries are intraorbital branches that are commonly affected.

• Although vertebral arteritis is extracranial, it may extend intracranially beyond the dural penetration.

• Coronary arteritis may lead to MI (myocardial infarction). This happens when the GCA involves the ascending aorta leading to aortic rupture.

• A characteristic angiographic pattern of vasculitis is produced when there is involvement of the subclavian, axillary and proximal brachial arteries.

There are no guidelines for prevention of temporal arteritis.

Temporal Arteritis, often known as Giant-cell arteritis, GCA or cranial arteritis is a disorder that affects the blood vessels [1]. It is an inflammatory disease which mostly involves the large and medium arteries located in the head.

The branch of the external carotid artery is the most affected. The disorder is a form of vasculitis. Blindness is the most serious complication of GCA but this complication can be easily corrected using corticosteroids.

The condition derives its name from the inflammatory cell involved as displayed in a biopsy. Temporal arteritis and giant-cell arteritis are often used interchangeably due to the temporal artery’s frequent involvement.

However, the condition can affect larger vessels like the aorta, leading to giant cell aortitis. The condition is equally known as cranial arteritis and Horton’s disease.

Patients need to be fully aware of the seriousness of reoccurring symptoms. This will help them seek for quick medical attention when they come back. Secondly, the importance of adhering strictly to the steroid dose schedule must be emphasized [10].

With the right administration of steroids, the disease can be treated in 3 years. When necessary, dietary restrictions and other interventions will help reduce the incidence of adverse effects arising from the intake of steroids a great deal.

Make sure you don’t stop taking the steroids abruptly. Missing out on a dose may not trigger off anything but as soon as the body gets used to taking the steroids, stopping suddenly will bring about serious bouts of withdrawal effects in just a couple of days.
Unless your doctor says so, taking anti-inflammatory painkillers while taking the painkillers must be avoided. Taking these two at once may lead to the development of stomach ulcers. Therefore, apart from low-dose aspirin, you have to avoid other anti-inflammatory painkillers.

While on steroids, don’t forget to carry your steroid card regularly. This card details your condition, dosage and other valuable information that will come in handy in the event of an emergency.

Your dosage of steroids will be increased if you become ill with other conditions or undergo surgery. This is to provide your body with the right dosage of steroid needed to properly combat physical stress.

1. Cantini F, Niccoli L, Storri L, Nannini C, Olivieri I, Padula A. Are polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis the same disease?. Semin Arthritis Rheum. Apr 2004;33(5):294-301.
2. Borchers AT, Gershwin ME. Giant cell arteritis: A review of classification, pathophysiology, geoepidemiology and treatment. Autoimmun Rev. Jan 21 2012
3. Eberhardt RT, Dhadly M. Giant cell arteritis: diagnosis, management, and cardiovascular implications. Cardiol Rev. Mar-Apr 2007;15(2):55-61.
4. Nordborg C, Larsson K, Aman P, Nordborg E. Expression of the class I interferon-related MxA protein in temporal arteries in polymyalgia rheumatica and temporal arteritis. Scand J Rheumatol. Mar-Apr 2009;38(2):144-8.
5. Rodríguez-Pla A, Bosch-Gil JA, Rosselló-Urgell J, Huguet-Redecilla P, Stone JH, Vilardell-Tarres M. Metalloproteinase-2 and -9 in giant cell arteritis: involvement in vascular remodeling. Circulation. Jul 12 2005;112(2):264-9.
6. Sainuddin S, Saeed NR. Acute bilateral tongue necrosis – a case report. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2008 46 (8): 671–2.
7. Zadik Y, Findler M, Maly A, et al. A 78-year-old woman with bilateral tongue necrosis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2011 111 (1): 15–9.
8. Lawrence RC, Helmick CG, Arnett FC, et al. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and selected musculoskeletal disorders in the United States. Arthritis Rheum 1998; 41:778.
9. Myklebust G, Gran JT. A prospective study of 287 patients with polymyalgia rheumatica and temporal arteritis: clinical and laboratory manifestations at onset of disease and at the time of diagnosis. Br J Rheumatol 1996; 35:1161.
10. Hall S, Persellin S, Lie JT, et al. The therapeutic impact of temporal artery biopsy. Lancet 1983; 2:1217.