Toxocariasis is a tropical disease caused by the roundworm, toxocara. It is transmitted to humans with the accidental consumption of soil contaminated with the eggs of the parasite excreted in cat or dog feces [1]. The eggs release larvae which puncture the intestinal wall and migrate through the circulatory system to various organs of the human body (brain, eyes, heart, liver, lungs and muscle) where they cause inflammation leading to symptoms of toxocariasis.

The clinical presentation of toxocariasis depends upon the organ system involved and can be classified as:

• Visceral larva migrans (VLM) - involving all major organs
• Ocular larva migrans (OLM) - involving the eyes and the optic nerve
• A covert form which is difficult to diagnose.

VLM affects mainly children under the age of five [2] who present with fever, pain in abdomen, hepatosplenomegaly, eosinophilia, bronchospasm, seizures, neuropsychiatric or cognitive symptoms or encephalopathy depending on the organ system involved.

OLM, on the other hand, affects children in the five to ten year age group and is associated with unilateral visual impairment and, strabismus [3]. In severe cases of OLM, there may be retinal invasion with granuloma formation in the posterior pole, heteropia and macular detachment [4]. There may also be endophthalmitis, papillitis followed secondarily by glaucoma and blindness.

The covert form of toxocariasis can present insidiously with headache, coughing, abdominal pain and hepatosplenomegaly or symptoms resembling asthma e.g. dyspnea, wheezing and coughing [1] [5].

• Splenomegaly

  Toxocariasis should be considered in differential diagnosis of eosinophilia and in patients with seizures of uncertain origin, isolated hepatomegaly and splenomegaly, bronchospasms or skin rash. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  In 1952, Beaver et al. 1 described three children who had hepatomegaly, and one of them also had splenomegaly. [scielo.br]

  Signs and symptoms include eosinophilia, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, and lung infections. [icd10data.com]

• Fever

  It causes a mild illness with fever. Other possible symptoms include cough, poor sleep, headaches, and abdominal pain. Children may show signs of infected lymph nodes, a swollen liver, or wheezing. [news-medical.net]

  Symptoms and Signs Visceral larva migrans (VLM) VLM consists of fever, anorexia, hepatosplenomegaly, rash, pneumonitis, and asthmatic symptoms, depending on the affected organs. [merckmanuals.com]

  Desaturation and fever suggested wider systemic involvement. CT scan associated to the anti toxocara antibodies strenghtened the hypothesis of parasitic infestation. 3.2. [file.scirp.org]

• Epilepsy

  Several studies have evidenced high seropositivity rates for T. canis among people with epilepsy suggesting that toxocariasis could play a role in the incidence of epilepsy in endemic areas. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  This increased for those with late-onset partial epilepsy to an OR of 18.22 (95% CI 2.10 to 158.10). [neurology.org]

  […] that toxocariasis may be an etiologic factor in epilepsy. 177 This hypothesis remains unsettled. [epilepsy.com]

  epilepsy has just developed ( 161 ), especially in regions where Toxocara occurs sympatrically with other epilepsy-causing infections ( 50 ). [cmr.asm.org]

• Swelling

  Swelling Inflammation is the body's response to infection, irritation or injury, which causes redness, swelling, pain and sometimes a feeling of heat in the affected area. [hse.ie]

  Funduscopic examination showed optic disk swelling in both eyes. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Each year more than 700 people infected with Toxocara experience permanent partial loss of vision. 2) Visceral larva migrans (VLM): Heavier, or repeated Toxocara infections, while rare, can cause VLM, a disease that causes swelling of the body’s organs [medic8.com]

  Toxocariasis can also affect the eyes and cause decreased vision, swelling around the eyes, and a cross-eyed appearance. Diagnosis and Treatment Toxocariasis is diagnosed through a blood test. For most cases, no treatment is necessary. [humanillnesses.com]

• Weakness

  Symptoms were fever, inactivity, weakness, tiredness and loss of appetite. She was followed clinically and with blood samples throughout a period of three years and four months. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Presents with chronic lack of energy and weakness associated with digestive disorders. Blood tests show raised levels of eosinophils and total IgE. Skin manifestations such as itch, eczema / dermatitis, and urticaria are sometimes present. [dermnetnz.org]

  It is characterized by chronic weakness and fatigue Occasionally, Covert Toxocariasis is used synonymously with Common Toxocariasis, owing to similar manifestations. [dovemed.com]

  Features Weakness Pruritus (Itching) Rash Difficulty breathing Abdominal pain / Hepatosplenomegaly Hyper-eosinophilia Increased total serum Immunoglobulin E (IgE) level Elevated antibody titers to T. canis Diagnosis In suspected cases, diagnosis is confirmed [wikidoc.org]

• Pallor

  Infection causes a transient illness with fever, lassitude, loss of appetite, pallor and often coughing and wheezing. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

  Patients can present with pallor, fatigue, weight loss, anorexia, fever, headache, rash, cough, asthma, chest tightness, increased irritability, abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting. [en.wikipedia.org]

  Baldisserotto et al. 77 described 18 cases of toxocariasis showing the following clinical findings: hepatomegaly (72.7%), splenomegaly (50%), history of contact with pups (38.8%), cervical adenitis (33.3% ), pulmonary symptoms (27.7%), fever (22.2%), pallor [scielo.br]

• Cough

  Other possible symptoms include cough, poor sleep, headaches, and abdominal pain. Children may show signs of infected lymph nodes, a swollen liver, or wheezing. [news-medical.net]

  Covert toxocariasis Non-specific symptoms such as cough, abdominal pain, headache, sleep disorder, vomiting, enlarged liver, and occasionally a rash. Blood tests show raised eosinophils in around half of all cases. [dermnetnz.org]

  Symptoms can include cough, difficulty sleeping, abdominal pain, headaches, and behavioral problems. Examination may reveal hepatomegaly, lymphadenitis, and/or wheezing. [emedicine.medscape.com]

  Signs and symptoms of covert toxocariasis are coughing, fever, abdominal pain, headaches, and changes in behavior and ability to sleep. [en.wikipedia.org]

• Pneumonia

  A range of symptoms are connected with VLM: fatigue weight loss anorexia fever cough pneumonia bronchospasm abdominal pain headache rash seizures (rarely) A swollen liver, infected lymph nodes, and wheezing may also be present. [news-medical.net]

  The lung biopsy showed findings of eosinophilic pneumonia with no evidence of malignancy. Peripheral eosinophilia was also noted. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Abdominal Pain

  Other possible symptoms include cough, poor sleep, headaches, and abdominal pain. Children may show signs of infected lymph nodes, a swollen liver, or wheezing. [news-medical.net]

  The first case was a 5 year old male referred to hospital with the symptoms of abdominal pain, loosing appetite, tenderness, cashexia, fever and 9.5gr/dl haemoglobin. Abdominal sonography revealed an echohetrogeny 49×20×54mm in. [pjms.com.pk]

  We report a 13-year-old girl with recurrent abdominal pain who, despite positive toxocara serology, was extensively investigated for other abdominal pathology. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms can include cough, difficulty sleeping, abdominal pain, headaches, and behavioral problems. Examination may reveal hepatomegaly, lymphadenitis, and/or wheezing. [emedicine.medscape.com]

  Covert toxocariasis Non-specific symptoms such as cough, abdominal pain, headache, sleep disorder, vomiting, enlarged liver, and occasionally a rash. Blood tests show raised eosinophils in around half of all cases. [dermnetnz.org]

• Geophagia

  Transmission is by contaminated food o by geophagia. Children up to 10 years are more prone to be infected for both their common geophagia. [medsci.org]

  She had no geophagia, but often sucked small stones, probably contaminated with faeces from puppies. Symptoms were fever, inactivity, weakness, tiredness and loss of appetite. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Geophagia (pica)- 2-10% of children aged 1-3 indulge in habitual geophagia. Pathophysiology Adult worms of the Toxocara family often live in the small intestine of dogs and cats. They range from 4-12 cm in length. [wikidoc.org]

  VLM occurs mostly in 2- to 5-yr-old children with a history of geophagia or in adults who ingest clay. The syndrome is self-limiting in 6 to 18 mo if egg intake ceases. Deaths due to invasion of the brain or heart occur rarely. [merckmanuals.com]

• Loss of Appetite

  Symptoms were fever, inactivity, weakness, tiredness and loss of appetite. She was followed clinically and with blood samples throughout a period of three years and four months. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Other symptoms are loss of appetite, fever, muscle and joint pains, abdominal pain, skin rashes and eye problems. These symptoms are due to migration of the larvae through the organs and tissues. [medigoo.com]

  Other symptoms may include abdominal pain, enlarged liver or spleen, loss of appetite, rash, and enlarged lymph nodes *. Toxocariasis can also affect the eyes and cause decreased vision, swelling around the eyes, and a cross-eyed appearance. [humanillnesses.com]

  Other symptoms are loss of appetite, muscle and joint pains, abdominal pain, skin rashes and eye problems. These symptoms are due to migration of the larvae through the organs and tissues. [conditions.health.qld.gov.au]

  Infection causes a transient illness with fever, lassitude, loss of appetite, pallor and often coughing and wheezing. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

• Acute Abdomen

  Visceral larva migrans presenting as acute abdomen in a child. J Pediatr Surg. 41(3):e7-9. [Medline]. Inatomi Y, Murakami T, Tokunaga M, et al. Encephalopathy caused by visceral larva migrans due to Ascaris suum. [emedicine.com]

• Hepatomegaly

  Toxocariasis should be considered in differential diagnosis of eosinophilia and in patients with seizures of uncertain origin, isolated hepatomegaly and splenomegaly, bronchospasms or skin rash. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Examination may reveal hepatomegaly, lymphadenitis, and/or wheezing. Visceral larva migrans is caused by the migration of larvae through the internal organs of humans and the resulting inflammatory reaction. [emedicine.medscape.com]

  In 1952, Beaver et al. 1 described three children who had hepatomegaly, and one of them also had splenomegaly. [scielo.br]

  Signs and symptoms include eosinophilia, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, and lung infections. [icd10data.com]

• Visual Impairment

  Abstract We report 5 cases of ocular toxocariasis in Korean adults complaining of visual impairment along with floating or bubbling sensation. Fundoscopic examination revealed a retinal detachment along with exudate in 4 cases. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms are fever, anorexia, hepatosplenomegaly, rash, pneumonitis, asthma, or visual impairment. Diagnosis is by enzyme immunoassay. Treatment is with albendazole or mebendazole. Corticosteroids may be added for severe symptoms or eye involvement. [merckmanuals.com]

• Visual Impairment

  Abstract We report 5 cases of ocular toxocariasis in Korean adults complaining of visual impairment along with floating or bubbling sensation. Fundoscopic examination revealed a retinal detachment along with exudate in 4 cases. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms are fever, anorexia, hepatosplenomegaly, rash, pneumonitis, asthma, or visual impairment. Diagnosis is by enzyme immunoassay. Treatment is with albendazole or mebendazole. Corticosteroids may be added for severe symptoms or eye involvement. [merckmanuals.com]

• Eye Pain

  A 6-year-old girl presented to Suzhou Municipal Children's Hospital with a complaint of right eye redness, minimal white discharge, no photophobia, eye pain, visual impairment, fever or arthralgia. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Depending on where the worms spread, symptoms can include: a high temperature coughing or wheezing stomach ache an itchy rash eye pain or redness changes to your sight, such as seeing small dots or lines (floaters) or flashes of light loss of vision [nhs.uk]

  Abdominal pain. Skin rash. Enlarged liver. Enlarged spleen. Pneumonia. Ocular toxocariasis usually only affects one eye. Symptoms of ocular toxocariasis may include: Eye pain and redness. Retina scarring and damage. Vision problems. [my.clevelandclinic.org]

  Case presentation: This paper presents the case of a 22-year-old woman from Caquetá, with a three-month history of vision loss in her left eye, eye pain, diplopia, photophobia and bilateral red eye. [revistas.unal.edu.co]

  Pediatric patients also may present with leukocoria, strabismus, photophobia, eye pain, or eye redness. [jpids.oxfordjournals.org]

• Redness of Eye

  Redness of eye improved but diminution of vision progressed for which she consulted the department of ophthalmology at Government medical college. There was no history of ocular trauma or ocular ailment in past. [ijmm.org]

  A 12-year-old female presented with sudden onset of diminished vision and redness of right eye to a private practitioner who diagnosed her as a case of acute iridocyclitis. [de.slideshare.net]

• Larva Migrans

  Clinical involvement of the nervous system in visceral larva migrans due to Toxocara is thought to be rare, although in experimental animals the larvae frequently migrate to the brain. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Diagnosis Toxocariasis (visceral larva migrans). Management Supportive care and antihelmintic agents. [nature.com]

  (Visceral or Ocular Larva Migrans) By Richard D. [merckmanuals.com]

  When the larvae migrate to the eyes (ocular larva migrans), they can cause problems with vision, red eyes, or a white appearance of the pupil (leukokoria). [news-medical.net]

  Ocular granulomas that form around a larva typically are peripheral in the retina or optic disc.Visceral larva migrans seems to affect children aged 1–4 more often while ocular larva migrans more frequently affects children aged 7–8. [en.wikipedia.org]

• Skin Rash

  Toxocariasis should be considered in differential diagnosis of eosinophilia and in patients with seizures of uncertain origin, isolated hepatomegaly and splenomegaly, bronchospasms or skin rash. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Other symptoms are loss of appetite, fever, muscle and joint pains, abdominal pain, skin rashes and eye problems. These symptoms are due to migration of the larvae through the organs and tissues. [medigoo.com]

  Other symptoms are loss of appetite, muscle and joint pains, abdominal pain, skin rashes and eye problems. These symptoms are due to migration of the larvae through the organs and tissues. [conditions.health.qld.gov.au]

  Human ingestion of viable eggs, commonly found in soil, leads to the spread of tiny larvae throughout the body, resulting in respiratory symptoms, enlarged liver, skin rashes, eosinophilia, and delayed ocular lesions. [medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com]

• Eczema

  Skin manifestations such as itch, eczema / dermatitis, and urticaria are sometimes present. Covert toxocariasis Non-specific symptoms such as cough, abdominal pain, headache, sleep disorder, vomiting, enlarged liver, and occasionally a rash. [dermnetnz.org]

  No statistical excess of risk was observed for patients with atopic dermatitis, pruritus or non-atopic eczema. Conclusion: The authors conclude that patients suffering from urticaria or prurigo should be tested for Toxocara infection. [karger.com]

  Other cutaneous manifestations include chronic pruritus, chronic prurigo, transient rash, different forms of eczema, hypodermic nodules and vasculitis [ 44 ]. [link.springer.com]

  The clinical manifestation of covert toxocariasis varies widely, with pulmonary involvement, such as asthma, acute bronchitis, pneumonia with or without Loeffler's syndrome, 90,91 skin problems, such as chronic urticaria or eczema, 92 lymphadenopathy, [scielo.br]

• Eruptions

  Buslau M, Marsh WC: Papular eruption in helminth infestation: A hypersensitivity phenomenon? Report of four cases. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1990;70:526–529. [karger.com]

  These larval migrations are characterized by the appearance of progressive, intensely pruritic, linear eruptive lesions, which are usually more extensive with A. braziliense infections. [web.archive.org]

  Zeitschrift fur Augenheilkunde 238(3) 163-171 2017 [Refereed] Three cases of pigmented cosmetic dermatitis-like eruptions associated with primary Sjögren's syndrome or anti-SSA antibody. [researchmap.jp]

• Seizure

  A range of symptoms are connected with VLM: fatigue weight loss anorexia fever cough pneumonia bronchospasm abdominal pain headache rash seizures (rarely) A swollen liver, infected lymph nodes, and wheezing may also be present. [news-medical.net]

  Toxocariasis should be considered in differential diagnosis of eosinophilia and in patients with seizures of uncertain origin, isolated hepatomegaly and splenomegaly, bronchospasms or skin rash. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Results: The prevalence survey found 130 confirmed cases of epilepsy, of which 113 were eligible for the case-control study (59 partial seizures and 54 generalized seizures). Two hundred thirty-three control subjects were selected. [neurology.org]

  If symptoms occur, they may include fever, cough or wheezing, and seizures. Other symptoms may include abdominal pain, enlarged liver or spleen, loss of appetite, rash, and enlarged lymph nodes *. [humanillnesses.com]

• Confusion

  The lesion may be confused with retinoblastoma or other intraocular tumors. Diagnosis Enzyme immunoassay plus clinical findings Diagnosis of toxocariasis is based on clinical, epidemiologic, and serologic findings. [merckmanuals.com]

  Patients can present with leukocoria and decreased vision in the affected eye which may be confused with retinoblastoma. Diffuse unilateral subacute neuroretinitis or vitreal bands may develop. [cdc.gov]

  Parasitic diseases can cause different syndrome (visceral larva migrans, ocular larva migrans) and the clinical features can be confusing. [file.scirp.org]

  Following these manifestations, the patients complain about headache, weakness, confusion, epileptic seizure, neuropsychological disturbances, depression, sensory disturbances, reduced long and short term memory and probably cognitive and behavioral disorders [omicsonline.org]

• Rabies

  Oral baits laced with vaccine would be ideal for dealing with semiwild dog and cat populations, an approach similar to ones that already exist for the large-scale control of rabies in wild animal populations. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Asthenia

  RESULTS: An IgG titer of 1/100 was most commonly found in case of allergies, physical asthenia, sensation of constriction in the anterior cervical area, right hypochondriac pain, paresthesies, nervousness (anxiety) and lipotimic states; a 1/50 titer was [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

The diagnosis of the disease is based mainly on the history and symptoms of multi-organ or ocular involvement. Serological testing and biopsy or autopsy specimens showing larvae help to confirm the diagnosis.

Toxocariasis should be suspected in a child with a history of pica, contact with dogs or cats, clinical signs of unexplained febrile illness with hepatosplenomegaly, eosinophilia or ocular symptoms. A complete blood count will reveal eosinophilia, although it may be absent in some cases of OLM and covert toxocariasis.

Confirmation of the diagnosis relies on the laboratory demonstration of specific anti-toxocara antibodies in either the serum or aqueous or vitreous fluid of the infected individual. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test which uses antigens from the second stage larva is the best indirect test for the diagnosis of toxocariasis. Although histopathology of tissue samples with the identification of larvae or the detection of larval DNA in tissues is definitive, it is difficult to obtain such infected tissue samples [6] [7].

The diagnosis of OLM is based on clinical criteria and ophthalmic examination as immunodiagnostic tests are not as reliable as for VLM [8]. Neuroimaging, especially magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is recommended to detect granulomas in the cortical or subcortical layers of the brain in patients with neuropsychiatric symptoms. MRI findings combined with cerebrospinal detection of eosinophil is indicative of toxocara infection.

• Enlargement of the Liver

  Symptoms: Toxocariasis can cause abnormal blood test results, enlargement of the liver, and sometimes enlargement of the spleen and lymph nodes. [medigoo.com]

  Signs and Symptoms: Toxocariasis can cause abnormal blood test results, enlargement of the liver, and sometimes enlargement of the spleen and lymph nodes. [conditions.health.qld.gov.au]

  At the physical examination only a mild liver enlargement was noticed; there was a little decrease in SpO 2 (94% in room air) with no signs of dyspnoea. [file.scirp.org]

• Leukocytosis

  Eosinophilia is a characteristic feature, but it can also be found leukocytosis and hypergammaglobulinemia. [file.scirp.org]

  Hyperglobulinemia, leukocytosis, and marked eosinophilia are common in VLM. Biopsies of the liver or other affected organs may show eosinophilic granulomatous reactions, but larvae are difficult to find in tissue sections and biopsies are low yield. [merckmanuals.com]

  Patient-3: A 46 year old female was admitted to Imam Khomeini Hospital with abdominal pain in RUQ, right tenderness, leukocytosis and eosinophilia (10%). The clinical diagnosis was appendicitis. [pjms.com.pk]

  Investigations [ 10 ] FBC: leukocytosis with marked eosinophilia (20-80% of total white cell count). Eosinophilia is less common in ocular and occult forms. Serology may be positive (in the ocular form, test vitreous fluids for antibodies). [patient.info]

Treatment The standard treatment for toxocariasis is a five-day course of albendazole. This is sometimes supplemented with corticosteroids to suppress the allergic reaction to the roundworms. [news-medical.net]

For systemic infections, practitioners use the antiparasitic drug mebendazole; it is not clear whether this is an effective ocular treatment. More aggressive treatments include laser photocoagulation and cryoretinopexy. [medigoo.com]

Furthermore, for patients suspected of eosinophilia of unknown origin who have positive results for T. canis, albendazole treatment may be considered a valuable treatment option. [kjim.org]

Treatment Albendazole or mebendazole Symptomatic treatment Asymptomatic patients and patients with mild symptoms do not require anthelmintic therapy because infection is usually self-limited. [merckmanuals.com]

Treatment in humans varies according to symptoms and location of the larvae. Anthelmintics, including albendazole, thiabendazole and mebendazole may be given together with anti-inflammatory corticosteroids. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

Those that require surgical intervention typically have a poorer prognosis and visual acuity. [eyewiki.aao.org]

We suggest that the visual prognosis need not be so poor as commonly believed, and outline a suggested plan of management. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

Prognosis Toxocariasis is generally a self-limited disease. The prognosis is good when adequately treated, except in some patients with ocular or cerebral involvement. Patient Education Properly de-worm kittens and puppies. [emedicine.medscape.com]

Well-timed vitrectomy is a suitable therapy for vitro-retinal complications in ocular toxocariasis to improve prognosis and to confirm the diagnosis. [8] Ophthalmologists need to be made aware of the ocular toxocariasis - especially in children and young [ijmm.org]

RESULTS: Of 238 patients with uveitis of unknown etiology, 71 (29.8%) were diagnosed with OT, and 80 (33.6%) had positive ELISA results for serum anti-Toxocara IgG. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

The development of molecular tools should lead to new and improved strategies for the treatment, diagnosis and control of toxocariasis and the role of other ascaridoid species in the epidemiology of Toxocara spp. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

Keywords: epidemiology, human, toxocariasis, dogs. [youngscientistusa.com]

Glickman LT, Schantz PM (1981) Epidemiology and pathogenesis of zoonotic toxocariasis. Epidemiol Rev 3: 230–250. View Article Google Scholar 25. [journals.plos.org]

In addition, risk factors for acquiring infection need to be better defined, and research needs to be conducted to better understand the pathophysiology and clinical course of toxocariasis. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

Pathophysiology The eggs of Toxocara canis, T. cati, and other animal ascarid helminths mature in soil and infect dogs, cats, and other animals. [merckmanuals.com]

Pathophysiology Adult worms of the Toxocara family often live in the small intestine of dogs and cats. They range from 4-12 cm in length. Almost all puppies are infected at or soon after birth. During the summer, Toxocara infective eggs are shed. [wikidoc.org]

Pathophysiology: Human infection with Toxocara, the parasitic larvae of canine or feline roundworms, is known as visceral larval migrans (VLM) systemically and ocular larva migrans (OLM) when it affects the eye. [web.archive.org]

Pathophysiology In humans, after contact with infected fecal material, the roundworm migrates throughout various organs but is unable to sexually mature. Reactive inflammatory processes lead to the organism's encapsulation. [eyewiki.aao.org]

OLM should be distinguished from retinoblastoma to prevent unnecessary surgical enucleation of the eye. [merckmanuals.com]

Preventive Measures: Wash your hands with soap and warm water after playing with your pets or other animals, after outdoor activities, and before handling food. Teach children the importance of washing hands to prevent infection. [medigoo.com]

Vitreoretinal surgery is useful and indicated to remove vitreous opacities and epiretinal membranes, to prevent and to treat retinal detachment. [medsci.org]

CDC Guidelines for Veterinarians: Prevention of Zoonotic Transmission of Ascarids and Hookworms of Dogs and Cats. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/NCIDOD/DPD/PARASITES/ascaris/prevention.htm. CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). [emedicine.medscape.com]

Washing all fruits and vegetables, keeping pets out of gardens and thoroughly cooking meats can also prevent transmission. [en.wikipedia.org]

1. Global Health - Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria (2013) Parasites - Toxocariasis (also known as Roundworm Infection). Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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3. Dinning WJ, Gillespie SH, Cooling RI, Maizels RM. Toxocariasis: a practical approach to management of ocular disease. Eye. 1988; 2:580-582.
4. Small KW, McCuen BW, De Juan E, Machemer R. Surgical management of retinal retraction caused by toxocariasis. Am. J. Ophthalmol.1989; 108:10-14.
5. Barry MA, Weatherhead JE, Hotez PJ, Woc-Colburn L. Childhood parasitic infections endemic to the United States. Pediatric clinics of North America. 2013; 60: 471–485.
6. Magnaval JF, Glickman LT, Dorchies P, Morassin B. Highlights of human toxocariasis. Korean J. Parasit.2001; 39:1-11.
7. Smith HV. Antibody reactivity in toxocariasis. In: LEWIS, J.W. & MAIZELS, R.M., ed.Toxocara and toxocariasis: clinical, epidemiological and molecular perspectives. London, Institute of Biology.1993; p. 91-109.
8. Schantz PM. Toxocara larva migrans now. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1989;41(Suppl.):21-34.