Increased rate of respiratory secretions and reflux of gastric content is frequently observed in patients on mechanical ventilation [3], while recurrent pneumonia as a result of aspiration and sepsis, a potentially life-threatening complication, may occur. Chronic cough that is aggravated by ingestion of liquids is considered to be one of the main distinguishing features of TEF [2], while dysphagia is reported in isolated cases [7].

• Collapse

  Without positive pressure ventilation, the fistula can be difficult to locate during bronchoscopy because the mucosa often collapses. A 30° bronchoscope may be helpful. [anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org]

  For this particular operation, the additional risks are: collapsed lung (pneumothorax) food leaking from the area being repaired hypothermia (low body temperature) narrowing of the repaired oesophagus (see below) re-opening of the abnormal connection [your.md]

  Risks Risks of anesthesia and surgery in general include: Reactions to medicines Breathing problems Bleeding, blood clots, or infection Risks of this surgery include: Collapsed lung ( pneumothorax ) Food leakage from the area that is repaired Low body [ufhealth.org]

  Risks of anesthesia and surgery in general include: Reactions to medicines Breathing problems Bleeding, blood clots, or infection Risks of this surgery include: Collapsed lung ( pneumothorax ) Food leakage from the area that is repaired Low body temperature [medlineplus.gov]

• Asymptomatic

  Although most patients with vocal cord paresis eventually become asymptomatic, two-thirds do not regain vocal cord function. This reinforces the importance of routine examination of vocal cord movement following H-type TEF repair. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Since AS formation is likely influenced by GER, and the ESPGHAN–NASPGHAN Guidelines suggest a systematic routine treatment with PPI for 1 year after surgical correction, including in asymptomatic patients ( 1 ); it will be interesting to investigate whether [frontiersin.org]

• Inflammation

  MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONAL OBSTRUCTION 495 INFECTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE LARGE BOWEL 496 ACUTE APPENDICITIS 519 NEOPLASMS OF THE LARGE BOWEL 523 INHERITED HAMARTOMATOUS POLYPOSIS SYNDROMES 524 INHERITED ADENOMATOUS POLYPOSIS SYNDROMES 528 MISCELLANEOUS [books.google.com]

  Longitudinal follow-up of bronchial inflammation, respiratory symptoms, and pulmonary function in adolescents after repair of esophageal atresia with tracheoesophageal fistula. [archbronconeumol.org]

  GERD can cause swallowing problems, recurrent chest infections, heartburn and other symptoms and may lead to inflammation of the esophagus (esophagitis), Barrett’s esophagus, and respiratory complications such as asthma. [rarediseases.org]

  However, samples of the tissue or pleural fluid can be collected and examined for any tumor, nodule, inflammation or infection. Gastrointestinal Endoscopy An endoscope is used to view the upper gastrointestinal tract to spot the fistula. [hxbenefit.com]

• Trisomy 21

  21 trisomy 18 trisomy 13 non-aneupliodic syndromic associations 5 Feingold syndrome CHARGE syndrome Pallister-Hall syndrome The trachea is an out-budding from the ventral foregut, and tracheo-esophageal fistulae represent incomplete/abnormal division [radiopaedia.org]

  They include: Trisomy 13, trisomy 18 or trisomy 21 ( Down syndrome ) Digestive malformations ( diaphragmatic hernia ) Heart conditions Kidney conditions Muscular and skeleton conditions Vertebral, anal, cardiac, tracheoesophageal fistula, renal and limb [rileychildrens.org]

  Genetic defects associated with oesophageal atresia include Trisomy 21 and 18, and 13q deletion. Of the cardiac anomalies, the most common are ventricular septal defect and tetralogy of Fallot. [doi.org]

• Recurrent Respiratory Infection

  As a result of recurrent respiratory infections, investigations carried out revealed a tracheooesophageal fistula, previously mistaken for a recurrent fistula. [doi.org]

• Cough

  Three hundred and eighteen days after placement of the occluder, he suddenly developed a severe cough after dilatation of the esophagogastric anastomosis and spontaneously coughed out the occluder. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Pneumonia

  This leads to choking and can lead to pneumonia. Movement of food or stomach contents into the airway is called aspiration, and pneumonia resulting from aspiration is called aspiration pneumonia. [cheo.on.ca]

  When this happens, air enters the gastrointestinal system, causing the bowels to distend, and mucus is breathed into the lungs causing aspiration pneumonia and breathing problems. There are three main types of TEF. [healthofchildren.com]

  BACKGROUND: Children with congenital esophageal atresia (EA) and tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF) have chronic respiratory symptoms including recurrent pneumonia, wheezing and persistent cough. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Aspiration

  Infants with type B or D may experience life-threatening aspiration of saliva or food. [quizlet.com]

  Preoperative care concentrates on avoiding aspiration pneumonia and includes the following: elevating the head to avoid reflux and aspiration of the stomach contents using a suction catheter to continuously remove mucus and saliva that could be inhaled [healthofchildren.com]

  Movement of food or stomach contents into the airway is called aspiration, and pneumonia resulting from aspiration is called aspiration pneumonia. [cheo.on.ca]

  The PAS evaluation revealed no penetration and aspiration in 26 of the cases (81.3%), while 1 had penetration and five had aspiration. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Stridor

  Aryepiglottic split was performed and stridor improved dramatically. Tight aryepiglottic folds should be kept in differential diagnosis in a case of postoperative stridor in an infant. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Occasional stridor was noted when the patient was agitated. A chest radiograph revealed a 20-mm proximal esophageal foreign body with a double ring sign, suggesting disc battery ingestion ( image A ). [jaoa.org]

  The result is that the airway collapses during expiration causing expiratory stridor which varies in severity from a hoarse barking type of cough, to recurrent respiratory infection to acute life-threatening episodes of cyanosis or apnoea. [doi.org]

• Gagging

  The presence of open mouth, open bite, high palate, gag reflex, and oral hygiene were scored as absent or present as an observational oral motor assessment. [clinicaltrials.gov]

  Common symptoms of EA with TEF include: Skin turning blue (cyanosis) while feeding Coughing, gagging and choking while feeding Excessive drooling If your baby is showing symptoms of EA with TEF, tests may be done to confirm the diagnosis. [fetaltonewborn.org]

  Infants born with congenital esophageal atresia/TE fistula present with coughing, gagging, cyanosis, vomiting, voluminous oral secretions, and possibly respiratory distress. [pedclerk.uchicago.edu]

  Symptoms of EA/TEF include: feeding problems right away drooling or spitting up a lot bubbly mucus in the mouth coughing, gagging, or choking when feeding bluish color to the skin when feeding difficulty breathing. [familydoctor.org]

• Failure to Thrive

  TEF and esophageal atresia result from failure of the embryonic esophagus and trachea to develop and separate correctly. Respiratory system development begins at about day 26 of gestation. [quizlet.com]

Making an early diagnosis is detrimental in achieving good patient outcomes. The first step is a detailed physical examination, together with fully obtained patient history that may reveal key details regarding symptoms and comorbidities. In neonates and infants, the diagnosis can be confirmed early on through ultrasonography, while more invasive methods are required in adults. Plain radiography and CT have shown to be useful adjunctive methods, but a more specific diagnostic procedure, such as bronchoscopy or esophagoscopy is considered as gold standard [3]. CT-guided esophagoscopy, however, has also proven to be a technique that yields very good results [7]. Its use, however, has been questioned when it comes to determining the optimal surgical approach [10], which is one of the main goals of imaging studies apart from confirming the presence of a fistula.

• Atelectasis

  Twenty nine patients have undergone to chest CT with contrast enhancement detecting localized atelectasis (41%), residual tracheal diverticulum (34%), bronchiectasis (31%), tracheal vascular compression (21%), tracheomalacia (17%) and esophageal diverticulum [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Chest X-rays showed areas of atelectasis in both lungs and mild gastroesophageal reflux was detected on pH-metry. [archbronconeumol.org]

  Often the lungs demonstrate areas of consolidation/atelectasis due to recurrent aspiration. [radiopaedia.org]

  Postoperatively, provide aggressive pulmonary therapy to reduce the risk of respiratory infection and atelectasis and initiate oral feedings slowly as ordered. [quizlet.com]

  Gastrostomy for gastric decompression is reserved for use in patients with significant pneumonia or atelectasis, to prevent reflux of gastric contents through the fistula and into the trachea. [aafp.org]

Initial management include palliative measures, but because median survival time without surgery is estimated to be between 1 and 6 weeks [3], this form of therapy needs to be conducted rapidly. Various methods exist and are used depending on the subtype and severity of the malformation. The goal of surgical treatment is to eliminate further contamination of the respiratory system, reestablish food passage and restore adequate nutrition. The two most effective methods have shown to be esophageal bypass and stenting [3]. Bypass is considered to be a more demanding surgical procedure, while stenting is indicated in patients of all age groups [3]. Esophageal exclusion, resection and repair of the fistula, as well as chemotherapy and radiation in the case of malignancy are additional approaches [11]. To minimize gastric reflux and prevent further malnutrition, gastrostomy and jejunostomy may be performed, respectively.

Advances in surgical and postoperative care have significantly improved the outcome of patients with tracheoesophageal fistulas [5], but the prognosis still significantly depends on the underlying cause and precipitating factors that led to its development. Neonates and infants in whom a congenital diagnosis is made have very good recovery rates with early and adequate surgical management, while patients in whom TEF arises due to malignant disease, the prognosis is extremely poor [3]. Median survival rate is only months after surgery, while persistent fistulas have an even worse prognosis [6]. In addition to the predisposing etiology, the promptness of making the diagnosis is also considered as a significant prognostic factor, as respiratory symptoms may significantly impair the quality of life and cause more harm to the patient if TEF is not revealed in its early stages [2].

Congenital forms of TEF are almost universally associated with esophageal atresia, a malformation of the esophagus that develops during embryonic life [1]. The exact cause, however remains unknown, but environmental and genetic factors have been listed as potential factors in the pathogenesis [8]. Acquired TEF, on the other hand, is seen in patients suffering from malignant diseases such as esophageal carcinoma and lung cancer, while approximately 1% of patients in whom tracheostomy is performed develop TEF as a result of damage caused by prolonged intubation [4].

When TEF is associated with esophageal atresia, incidence is approximately 1 in 3500 live births and up to 50% of newborns have additional anomalies, including vertebral, cardiovascular, renal, musculoskeletal and several other [5]. Tracheostomy carries a very small risk of TEF development (< 1%), but it is one of the most important risk factors for acquired forms [4]. Additional risk factors are airway infection, oxygen deprivation, diabetes mellitus and poor nutrition [4], whereas both environmental and genetic factors have been implicated. Exposure to diethylstilbestrol and methimazole, but also alcohol and tobacco during pregnancy are listed as a significant risk, whereas a myriad of genetic diseases, such as Down syndrome, Edwards syndrome, Patau syndrome, Feingold syndrome, Opitz syndrome, DiGeorge syndrome, Fanconi anemia and many other have been observed in patients with TEFs [5]. Some reports have shown that up to 17% of children suffering from this condition were diagnosed with eosinophilic esophagitis, but its connection to TEF remains to be discovered [6]. Significant airway anomalies, including laryngomalacia, subglottic stenosis, tracheomalacia and vocal fold paresis, have been detected in some studies [9].

Congenital development of TEF and esophageal atresia occurs during the fifth week of embryonic life, when the trachea and the esophagus arise from the foregut [6]. Normally, the mesenchymal tissue situated between the two tubes should separate them, but for some reason, incomplete separation occurs and various subtypes can be encountered. The distal or proximal portion of the esophagus may be connected to the trachea (atresia with distal or proximal fistula, respectively), while approximately 4% of congenital forms include both proximal and distal attachment [2]. In rare cases, isolated forms (H type) may be seen and they are considered to be least severe [1]. On the other hand, mechanical damage to the trachea and esophagus in the setting of malignancy or instrumentation is considered to be one of the most important factors. Regardless of the underlying mechanism of development, symptoms and complications stem from compromise of the respiratory tree by food and gastric contents as a result of reflux [3]. As a result, aspiration pneumonia and life-threatening sepsis may occur and symptoms such as coughing and increased secretions are triggered so that gastric content is expelled from the trachea.

Since the exact mechanism of TEF development remains unknown, prevention of morbidity and disability caused by this condition can be achieved by making the diagnosis while being in its initial stages.

Tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF) is an anatomical malformation that results in direct communication between the esophagus and the trachea. It can arise from either congenital or acquired causes. Esophageal atresia, one of the most common gastrointestinal anomalies, is seen in up to 98% of all congenital TEFs and various subtypes exist [1]. The most common is atresia with distal fistula, in which the proximal part of the esophagus is not connected to the distal part that arises from the trachea directly. Atresia with proximal fistula, atresia with double fistula and isolated esophageal changes are other congenital forms [2]. On the other hand, malignant tumors such as esophageal carcinoma, intubation and tracheostomy may provoke the formation of this anatomical entity [3] [4]. Factors that have shown to increase the risk of TEF development comprise inadequate nutrition, infection of the airways, hypoxemia, anemia, diabetes mellitus, corticosteroid therapy and hypotension [4]. Maternal alcohol consumption and smoking, as well as exposure to methimazole (used for hyperthyroidism) and diethylstilbestrol potentially increase the rates of TEF [5]. Genetic factors also play a potential role, as 50% of patients in whom esophageal atresia is present have other accompanying anomalies, such as cardiovascular, renal, gastrointestinal and cerebral, as well as limb and vertebral defects [5]. Although various risk factors and predisposing conditions have been identified, the exact cause of TEF remains incompletely understood. Congenital development of TEF occurs at some point during the fifth week of gestation, when the foregut differentiates into the esophagus and trachea [6]. Mucosal ischemia, abrasion and mechanical injury to the trachea is the presumed pathogenic mechanism of acquired TEF [4]. Patients experience increased respiratory secretions, aspiration of gastric contents and consequent pneumonia that is often recurrent and severe [3]. Some reports indicate that frequent coughing after swallowing liquids is one of the hallmarks of this condition [1]. The diagnosis of congenital TEF is made by ultrasonography in utero or during neonatal period, while bronchoscopy and esophagoscopy are principal methods used in adult patients [3]. Computed tomography (CT) has shown to be of benefit in some patients [7]. Treatment invariably includes a surgical approach in all patients and methods such as tracheal reconstruction, use of stents and fistula repair are applied [4]. The prognosis significantly varies depending on the underlying cause, as congenital forms are managed efficiently, whereas malignant TEF is associated with an extremely poor prognosis [8].

Tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF) is a condition where the trachea, the tube through which air travels into the lungs, and esophagus, through which food passes into the stomach, are connected. It is often encountered in neonates and infants, in whom the cause is incomplete separation during embryonic life, in which case it is closely associated with esophageal atresia, one of the most common congenital malformations of the gastrointestinal tract. In adults, esophageal and lung cancer may promote formation of the fistula, while intubation and tracheostomy have shown to be one of the most important risk factors. Diabetes mellitus, infections of the respiratory tract and numerous genetic diseases have been brought into connection with this anatomical malformation, but the exact mechanism of disease remains unknown. Symptoms appear as a result of aspiration of food into the respiratory system and recurrent pneumonia, increased respiratory secretions, cough after swallowing and poor nutrition are most frequently reported. To make the diagnosis, ultrasonography may be sufficient in infants and young children, while use of more invasive methods such as bronchoscopy may be necessary in adults. However, either computed tomography (CT scan), guided or direct inspection of the esophagus (esophagoscopy), is considered to be the procedure of choice. Regardless of the predisposing factor that led to TEF formation, surgery is necessary in all patients, as survival rates are measured in weeks without appropriate treatment. It is important to prevent further passage of food into the lungs and restore adequate nutrition, which may sometimes require insertion of tubes through the abdomen and into the stomach (gastrostomy) or small intestine (jejunostomy). Abolishing the connection between the trachea and the esophagus is the main goal of surgical treatment and various techniques, including use of stents, resection and repair of the fistula are used. The prognosis significantly depends on the underlying cause. Infants and young children are effectively treated, while in patients in whom a malignant disease provoked the formation of TEF, survival rates range from weeks to months. Nevertheless, the importance of an early diagnosis is detrimental, since significant damage of the respiratory tree may be prevented by identifying this condition in its early stages.

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