The onset of symptoms occurs 2 to 3 days after exposure to the infectious agent. The illness usually lasts for 7 to 10 days. Nasal congestion, sneezing and sore throat are the hallmarks of the common cold. The patients usually present with a runny nose, sneezing, post-nasal drip and throat pain. At first there is a clear mucus discharge from the nose. This often becomes thick and yellow or green within 2 to 3 days. The other symptoms include mild to high grade fever, conjunctivitis, fatigue and myalgias.

In some of the cases of upper respiratory infections, cough is the main symptom. This is because of the inflammation in the airways caused by infection. Cough is usually dry and associated with fever, headache and body aches.

In infants and children, the upper airways may become inflamed causing viral croup and acute laryngotracheobronchitis. Initially, the child gets a cold with cough, coryza and low grade fever. Gradually in 12 to 24 hours, the cough becomes croupy (also called “barking cough”). It causes varying degrees of respiratory distress with retractions and even cyanosis [7].

• Fever

  Fever may be present, but it is not typical in persons with croup. Fever may be seen with influenza laryngitis. [emedicine.medscape.com]

  Seek medical attention when you have a fever that is greater than 100.4°F or 38°C, fever unresponsive to fever reducer, fever present for more than two to three days, or a rash. [campushealth.unc.edu]

  The patients usually have mild fever with sore throat, a runny nose, cough and fatigue. Children tend to get more upper respiratory tract infections than adults. [symptoma.com]

  Abstract XSQJ bag tea was used to treat 239 cases of high fever caused by viral upper respiratory infection, widely spreading in summer and autumn. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Fatigue

  The patients usually have mild fever with sore throat, a runny nose, cough and fatigue. Children tend to get more upper respiratory tract infections than adults. [symptoma.com]

  Fatigue, may persist Sore throat Sometimes a sore throat Normal energy level Exhaustion Children suffer more colds each year than adults, due to their immature immune systems and to the close physical contact with other children at school or day care [chop.edu]

  Body aches / fatigue Get plenty of rest—at least 8-10 hours of sleep with rest periods during the day. Take an oral pain reliever. Seek medical attention when you have persistent fatigue for more than 8-10 days or a rash. [campushealth.unc.edu]

  […] infection: Stuffy, runny nose Scratchy, tickly throat Watery eyes Sneezing Mild hacking cough Congestion Sore throat Achy muscles and bones Headaches Low-grade fever Chills Watery discharge from the nose that thickens and turns yellow or green Mild fatigue [coppellfamilymedicine.com]

• Malaise

  The combination of nasal congestion, rhinorrhea, sore throat, cough, and malaise is the symptomatic profile that constitutes an uncomplicated upper respiratory tract infection (URI), also known as the common cold. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Manifestations include fever, malaise, and headache. Patients’ symptoms usually last 3-4 days. Most patients feel well again within a week’s time. [atsu.edu]

  Influenza : initially presents with systemic symptoms, including fever, rigors, headaches, myalgia, malaise and anorexia. [patient.info]

  In some instances a secondary bacterial infection occurs producing a thickened yellow nasal discharge, watering eyes, mild fever, sore throat, headache, malaise (discomfort and uneasiness caused by an illness), myalgia, and dry cough. [time-to-run.com]

  Figures and Tables - Analysis 2.2 Comparison 2 Malaise: delayed versus immediate antibiotics, Outcome 2 Malaise severity on Day 3. [doi.org]

• Chills

  Chills iStock/George Clerk Patients with pneumonia often report teeth-chattering chills that cannot be remedied. Chills are a sign of fever and that the body is working overtime to regulate temperature. [rd.com]

  Chills Chills are uncommon with a cold. 60% of people who have the flu experience chills. No chills. Tiredness Tiredness is fairly mild with a cold. Tiredness is moderate to severe with the flu. Tiredness is moderate. [fauquierent.net]

  The following are the most common symptoms of an upper respiratory infection: Stuffy, runny nose Scratchy, tickly throat Watery eyes Sneezing Mild hacking cough Congestion Sore throat Achy muscles and bones Headaches Low-grade fever Chills Watery discharge [coppellfamilymedicine.com]

  In general, if an athlete is having symptoms below the neck, such as chills or body aches, return to play is not yet recommended. If athletes have mononucleosis, different return to play guidelines exist. [sportsmedtoday.com]

• Lymphadenopathy

  Lymphadenopathy may be present in the anterior cervical nodes. Fever may be present, but it is not typical in persons with croup. Fever may be seen with influenza laryngitis. [emedicine.medscape.com]

  Her throat appeared to have erythematous, swollen tonsils, greater on the left with left-sided cervical lymphadenopathy and diffuse, painful swelling. Her breath sounds were positive for scattered wheezing with rales on the left. [healio.com]

  Modified Centor Criteria for Pharyngitis and Tonsillitis Clinical finding Points Absence of cough 1 Age 3 to 14 years 1 15 to 45 years 0 Older than 45 years –1 Anterior cervical lymphadenopathy 1 Fever 1 Tonsillar erythema or exudates 1 Table 2. [aafp.org]

  Infectious mononucleosis (glandular fever) : presents with persistent severe sore throat, fever, cervical lymphadenopathy and malaise; it is particularly common in teenagers and young adults. [patient.info]

• Cough

  This paper discusses the mechanism of cough in man and describes some clinical investigations on the effects of codeine on cough associated with URTI. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Initially, the child gets a cold with cough, coryza and low grade fever. Gradually in 12 to 24 hours, the cough becomes croupy (also called “barking cough”). It causes varying degrees of respiratory distress with retractions and even cyanosis. [symptoma.com]

  Paroxysms of coughing may produce conjunctival hemorrhages. Petechial hemorrhages may be noted in the upper body, resulting from severe paroxysms of coughing, such as those associated with whooping cough. [emedicine.medscape.com]

• Common Cold

  Manifestations Common Cold Initially, the common cold begins with nasal stuffiness, sneezing, and headache. Rhinorrhea then occurs with increasing severity. [atsu.edu]

  The most common virus responsible for common cold is rhinovirus. Other viruses include the coronavirus, parainfluenza virus, adenovirus, enterovirus, cytomegalovirus, coxsakievirus and respiratory syncytial virus. [symptoma.com]

  (common cold), Acute nasopharyngitis [common cold], acute rhinitis, acute rhinitis (diagnosis), rhinitis acute, common cold, common cold (diagnosis), Common cold syndrome, Rhinitis (infective), Infective nasopharyngitis, NOS, Acute nasopharyngitis, NOS [fpnotebook.com]

  The common cold. Lancet. 2003 Jan 04;361(9351):51-9. [PubMed: 12517470] 9. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Sore Throat

  Pharyngitis Pharyngitis is more commonly known as a sore throat. Sometimes a sore throat is a symptom of a wider respiratory illness such as the common cold, but it can also be due to an infection only in your pharynx (throat). [gleneagles.com.sg]

  The combination of nasal congestion, rhinorrhea, sore throat, cough, and malaise is the symptomatic profile that constitutes an uncomplicated upper respiratory tract infection (URI), also known as the common cold. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Sore throat after sore throat after sore throat. Are you askng the critical questions? Postgrad Med 1997 ; 101 : 205 –6, 209 –12, 215 –8 48 Orrling A, Stjernquist-Desatnik A, Schalen C. [academic.oup.com]

  sore throat 35 ,36. [bmb.oxfordjournals.org]

  Nasal congestion, sneezing and sore throat are the hallmarks of the common cold. The patients usually present with a runny nose, sneezing, post-nasal drip and throat pain. At first there is a clear mucus discharge from the nose. [symptoma.com]

• Sneezing

  Nasal congestion, sneezing and sore throat are the hallmarks of the common cold. The patients usually present with a runny nose, sneezing, post-nasal drip and throat pain. At first there is a clear mucus discharge from the nose. [symptoma.com]

  They are spread by droplets expelled by a person with a cold who sneezes, coughs or speaks. The handling of money is one way of passing on or ‘catching’ a cold. [time-to-run.com]

  Sneezing Sneezing is commonly present with a cold. Sneezing is not common with the flu. Sneezing is common. Sudden Symptoms Cold symptoms tend to develop over a few days. The flu has a rapid onset within 3-6 hours. [fauquierent.net]

  Symptoms typically associated with upper respiratory tract infections include sneezing, coughing, discharge from the nose and/or eyes, difficulty breathing, and sometimes fever. [petmd.com]

  Sneeze and cough into tissues. Discard used tissues right away, then wash your hands carefully. Teach children to sneeze or cough into the bend of their elbow when they don't have a tissue. That way they cover their mouths without using their hands. [mayoclinic.com]

• Nasal Congestion

  The combination of nasal congestion, rhinorrhea, sore throat, cough, and malaise is the symptomatic profile that constitutes an uncomplicated upper respiratory tract infection (URI), also known as the common cold. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Children and adults who suffer from allergies will also have nasal congestion. They require appropriate allergy treatment. Newborns may sound stuffy on and off, but there is no nasal discharge. [farrellpediatrics.com]

  They are not effective in treating nasal congestion, sinus pressure, sore throat, headache, or malaise from infections. [studenthealth.ucsf.edu]

  It does not have an effect on nasal congestion, and carries some side effects. Nasal steroid sprays, such as Flonase and Nasacort, have not been shown to help a common cold. [care.american-rhinologic.org]

  Because newborns and young infants prefer to breathe through their nose, even moderate nasal congestion can create difficulty breathing. [msdmanuals.com]

• Nausea

  Symptoms generally include a runny nose or excessive nasal discharge, tearing eyes (conjunctivitis), sore throat, breathing difficulties, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fever, sneezing, cough, pain in the body, etc. [differencebetween.net]

  Less common symptoms include reduced ability to smell, headache, shortness of breath, sinus pain, itchy and watery eyes, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, bad breath, and body aches. Symptoms usually last between 3 and 14 days. [walgreens.com]

  Some antiviral medicines can cause nausea and vomiting. When easing a child’s symptoms, acetaminophen (one brand: Children’s Tylenol) can help ease pain and lower a fever. [familydoctor.org]

  […] versicolor -- Warts -- Superficial wound care -- GI/GU conditions -- Introduction -- Bowel preps -- Constipation -- Diarrhea -- Dyspepsia -- Flatulence -- Gastritis (peptic ulcer disease) -- Heartburn and gerd -- Hemorrhoids -- Lactose intolerance -- Nausea [worldcat.org]

  Nausea. Vomiting. These signs and symptoms for upper respiratory tract infection last for more than a week. But if the symptoms continue for more than a couple of weeks the illness can be as serious as pneumonia or bronchitis. [epainassist.com]

• Odynophagia

  Common symptoms of upper respiratory infection generally include: nasal congestion, runny nose (rhinorrhea), nasal discharge (may change from clear to white to green) nasal breathing, sneezing, sore or scratchy throat, painful swallowing (odynophagia) [medicinenet.com]

• Abdominal Pain

  […] contentid=746&language=English">vomiting</a> due to the cough or from swallowing mucus</li><li>feeling unwell</li><li>abdominal (belly) pain or chest pain</li></ul> <h2>What your doctor can do for pneumonia</h2> <p>Your doctor will listen to your child's [aboutkidshealth.ca]

  If your sore throat is severe, you have abdominal pain, and you lack a runny nose or a cough, you may have strep throat. Rarely, URIs can progress to more serious conditions such as epiglottis. This is more likely in small children. [verywellhealth.com]

  Outcomes for harms include antibiotic-related adverse events (eg, abdominal pain, diarrhea, rash), Clostridium difficile colitis, development of resistance, and cost. [pediatrics.aappublications.org]

  Headache, confusion, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea may be present, depending on the age of the patient and the organisms involved. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  There were more side effects in the treatment group (22%) compared to placebo (8%), which mainly included nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain. [doi.org]

• Dysphagia

  Purulent cough, fevers >101 Allergic Rhinitis Itching, sneezing Rhinitis Medicamentosa History of nasal decongestant use Pertussis Paroxysmal coughing fits, vomiting with cough Foreign Body Unilateral foul smelling discharge/secretions Epiglottitis Dysphagia [saem.org]

  […] of smell Watchful waiting in mild cases; amoxicillin for severe or complicated bacterial rhinosinusitis 10 Common cold Runny nose, cough, sore throat, sneezing, nasal congestion Symptomatic treatment; antibiotics are not recommended 11 Epiglottitis Dysphagia [aafp.org]

  Clinical Manifestations The syndrome of epiglottitis begins with the acute onset of fever, sore throat, hoarseness, drooling, dysphagia and progresses within a few hours to severe respiratory distress and prostration. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

• Halitosis

  Halitosis may be noted, because resident flora processes the products of the inflammatory process. Anterior cervical lymphadenopathy is seen with viral and bacterial infections. [emedicine.medscape.com]

  […] conjuctivitis -- Nonallergic conjunctivitis -- Blepharitis -- Dry eye -- Stye -- Contact lens care -- Oral cavitiy care -- Introduction -- Dental hygiene/preventative oral care -- Edentulism, dentures, and denture care -- Canker sores -- Cold sores -- Halitosis [worldcat.org]

  Other signs may include bad breath (halitosis), cough, voice hoarseness, and fever. Laboratory testing is generally not recommended in the evaluation of upper respiratory infections. [medicinenet.com]

• Mouth Breathing

  • Constant nasal obstruction with little or no other nasal symptoms. 21. 2ry Effects of Chronic Nasal Obstruction - Mouth breathing → dry mouth, sore throat. - Insomnia, snoring. - Loss of nasal physiologic functions such as filtration of particles [slideshare.net]

• Sweating

  The symptoms of flu can set in suddenly and include: Chills Fever Headache Body ache Weakness Sweating Runny nose Coughing Sore throat Sneezing [ Read: Bacterial Infections During Pregnancy ] Treating Common Upper Respiratory Tract Infection During Pregnancy [momjunction.com]

  […] up to 102°F Runny or stuffy nose Green or yellow nasal discharge Sore throat Cough Sneezing Feeling tired Muscle aches Headache Watery eyes Symptoms develop slowly Symptoms are mild Flu symptoms include: Fever over 102°F Stuffy nose Nausea Chills and sweats [familydoctor.org]

  It reduces fever by directly acting on hypothalamic heat-regulating centers, increasing dissipation of body heat by means of vasodilation and sweating. [emedicine.medscape.com]

• Otalgia

  Symptoms included sore throat, laryngitis, cough, influenza, bronchitis, pneumonia, otalgia, and sinusitis. The seasonal onset (if possible) was determined based on the history provided from the initial consultation. STUDY DESIGN: Case series. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  After AOM is diagnosed, judicious antibiotic use can be enhanced by further categorizing patients on the basis of illness severity (severe otalgia, otalgia lasting >48 hours, or temperature ≥39°C), laterality of infection (bilateral versus unilateral) [pediatrics.aappublications.org]

• Myalgia

  Some Infectious Agents that Cause the Common Cold Agents* Human Serotypes Other unique symptoms in addition to coryza Myxoviruses Influenza A, B, C Myalgia and fatigue Parainfluenza 1, 2, 3, 4 Myalgia and fatigue Respiratory syncytial virus 1 (possibly [atsu.edu]

  In some instances a secondary bacterial infection occurs producing a thickened yellow nasal discharge, watering eyes, mild fever, sore throat, headache, malaise (discomfort and uneasiness caused by an illness), myalgia, and dry cough. [time-to-run.com]

  A 44-year-old man with no significant medical history presents to his local urgent care center after 3 days of fevers, sore throat, rhinitis, coughing, and myalgia. [pulmonologyadvisor.com]

  […] disease) -- Heartburn and gerd -- Hemorrhoids -- Lactose intolerance -- Nausea and vomiting -- Ostomy care -- Pinworm infection -- Urinary incontinence -- Musculoskeletal conditions -- Introduction -- Aches and pains -- Arthralgia -- Back pain (lower) -- Myalgia [worldcat.org]

  The other symptoms include mild to high grade fever, conjunctivitis, fatigue and myalgias. In some of the cases of upper respiratory infections, cough is the main symptom. This is because of the inflammation in the airways caused by infection. [symptoma.com]

• Headache

  Headache A headache is fairly uncommon with a cold. A headache is very common with the flu, present in 80% of flu cases. A headache is not unusual. Sore Throat Sore throat is commonly present with a cold. [fauquierent.net]

  Manifestations include fever, malaise, and headache. Patients’ symptoms usually last 3-4 days. Most patients feel well again within a week’s time. [atsu.edu]

  Signs and symptoms, which can vary from person to person, might include: Runny or stuffy nose Sore throat Cough Congestion Slight body aches or a mild headache Sneezing Low-grade fever Generally feeling unwell (malaise) The discharge from your nose may [mayoclinic.com]

  The symptoms of a cold may include: Headache Loss of smell Body aches Cough Runny nose Nasal congestion Signs And Symptoms Of Influenza: Influenza or the flu is also a viral infection that affects the upper respiratory tract. [momjunction.com]

  While over-the-counter (OTC) pain relievers such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen can help adults ease a sore throat, muscle aches, and headaches, children should not be given aspirin. [verywellhealth.com]

• Lethargy

  Other typical symptoms in children include decreased appetite, lethargy, and a general feeling of illness (malaise). Headaches and body aches develop, particularly with influenza. [msdmanuals.com]

  Description: 1 volume (various pagings) : illustrations Contents: CNS conditions -- Introduction -- Drowsiness/lethargy -- Fever -- Headache -- Insomnia -- Jet lag (rapid time zone change) -- Motion sickness -- Tobacco use and smoking cessation -- Weight [worldcat.org]

  Clinical symptoms of hyponatraemia are irritability, confusion, lethargy, coma, and convulsions. Fluid restriction may be appropriate management to prevent this. [doi.org]

  You should seek emergency medical attention if you or your child experiences: difficulty breathing including abnormal noises while breathing, rapid breathing, or blue lips or skin tone excessive drooling or inability to swallow high fever extreme lethargy [verywellhealth.com]

  Upper respiratory infections are one of the most frequent causes for a doctor visit with varying symptoms ranging from runny nose, sore throat, cough, to breathing difficulty, and lethargy. [medicinenet.com]

• Febrile Seizures

  In children with a history of febrile seizures, avoiding high fevers may reduce the risk of seizure. [emedicine.medscape.com]

Upper respiratory tract infections are usually obvious from the common cold symptoms and do not require a medical diagnosis. However, the following investigations are necessary to establish the diagnosis with certainty.

• White blood cell count: Leukocytosis is very common with counts more than 10,000 per cubic millimeter and a predominance of polymorphs and immature neutrophils.
• Direct visualization: A laryngoscope helps visualize an enlarged, swollen and erythematous epiglottis in case of epiglottitis.
• Radiographic studies: X-ray of soft tissues of neck reveals subglottic narrowing. The presence of “thumb sign” is a common radiographic marker for epiglottitis [8].
• Throat culture: It is the primary method for the diagnosis of streptococcal pharyngitis and tonsillitis and the most reliable means of differentiating streptococcal from viral pharyngitis. Viral culture from nasopharyngeal secretions and viral antibody titer may help establishing the diagnosis of bronchiolitis.

• Subglottic Narrowing

  Radiographic studies: X-ray of soft tissues of neck reveals subglottic narrowing. The presence of “thumb sign” is a common radiographic marker for epiglottitis. [symptoma.com]

• Hyponatremia

  Increasing fluid intake in children with no signs of dehydration can result in hyponatremia, therefore increasing fluid intake in these children is NOT advised. [atsu.edu]

In cases of upper respiratory infections, management is mostly symptomatic. Infants with respiratory distress should be hospitalized. Heated and humidified air may improve symptoms. The following agents may also be helpful.

• Nasal decongestants: Topical nasal decongestant sprays such as pseudoephedrine may be helpful [9]. They should only be used for 2 to 3 days.
• Intranasal cromolyn sodium and ipratropium bromide: These are helpful in reducing the severity of common cold symptoms.
• Analgesics: These include acetaminophen, aspirin and ibuprofen. They may help to improve the symptom of sore throat. Aspirin should not be used in children with acute viral illnesses because of the risk of Reye syndrome.
• Antibiotics: Antibiotics are used if the upper respiratory tract infection has a bacterial etiology [10].
• Antihistamines: These drugs help improve the symptoms like sneezing and rhinorrhea. These should be used with caution in elderly patients as they can cause sedation and anticholinergic effects.
• Ribavirin: It is an antiviral agent that can be used for the treatment of severe bronchiolitis due to respiratory syncytial virus.
• Intravenous fluids: They help to prevent dehydration. Respiratory acidosis and electrolyte imbalance must be corrected as well.
• Avoid smoking: Smoke irritates the nose and the throat. Therefore, staying away from smoky environments is recommended.
• Prop up position: Raising the head of your bed slightly by placing a pillow under the mattress may help reduce cough at night.

Most of the people with upper respiratory infections recover within a week with proper medication and good hygiene. So overall, the prognosis is excellent.

Untreated cases may lead to severe complications like otitis media, bronchitis, pneumonia and meningitis [6]. Serious complications may result in significant morbidity and rare deaths.

A number of viruses are responsible for causing upper respiratory infections. The most common virus responsible for common cold is rhinovirus. Other viruses include the coronavirus, parainfluenza virus, adenovirus, enterovirus, cytomegalovirus, coxsakievirus and respiratory syncytial virus. Over 200 viruses have been known to cause symptoms of the common cold.

Some cases of acute pharyngitis may also be caused by bacteria, most commonly Streptococcus pyogenes [2]. Other bacterial causes include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Hemophilus influenzae, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Bordetella pertussis and Bacillus anthracis [3].

Acute upper respiratory tract infection is the leading cause of illness and death of children under 5 years of age. It constitutes around 30 to 60% of patients in a hospital outpatient. 80% of the children have upper respiratory infections.

Children usually have 3 to 8 episodes of viral respiratory infections per year. Adults have approximately 2 to 4 colds per year whereas people older than 60 years have less than one cold annually.

Streptococcal bacteria causes 5 to 15% of all cases of pharyngitis. Moreover, the upper respiratory infections are most common in cold weather, with a peak incidence from late winter to early spring. These illnesses are the leading reasons for people missing work and school.

Acute upper respiratory infections occur by transmission of microorganisms by aerosol, droplet or hand-to-hand contact with infected secretions. The viral infection arises from direct microbial invasion with subsequent bacteremia. This results in marked edema and inflammation with polymorphs and fibrin deposition.

The microorganisms encounter several barriers such as the hair lining the nose, mucus coats and ciliated cells lining the respiratory tract.

Initially, the infection occurs in the nasopharynx. It then extends to the larynx and trachea, causing redness and swelling and ultimately narrowing of the lumen by the fibrinous exudate.

Sometimes, genetic variations may also be involved in determining which patients have more severe disease courses than others [4][5].

The upper respiratory infections are usually contagious so the spread can be prevented by covering mouth and nose while coughing, washing hands carefully and avoiding touching one’s eyes and nose. Sharing of cups and kitchen utensils is also not to be avoided.

Regular exercise may also have a beneficial role as it helps improve the immune system. There are currently vaccines available that can provide protection against certain respiratory tract infections.

Upper respiratory infections include infections of the nose, sinuses, pharynx and larynx. The common cold is the most well-known form. Other types of upper respiratory infections include rhinitis, sinusitis, pharyngitis, epiglottitis, laryngitis, laryngotracheitis and tracheitis. These infections are the most common acute illnesses and are usually characterized by mild fever, cough, fatigue, sneezing and nasal congestion [1] and range from simple common cold to severe life threatening illnesses such as epiglottitis.

The upper respiratory infections are the most common illnesses of respiratory tract. The patients usually have mild fever with sore throat, a runny nose, cough and fatigue. Children tend to get more upper respiratory tract infections than adults.

1. Cherry DK, Hing E, Woodwell DA, Rechtsteiner EA. National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 2006 summary. National health statistics reports. Aug 6 2008(3):1-39.
2. Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Nov 15 2012;55(10):1279-1282.
3. Chow AW, Benninger MS, Brook I, et al. IDSA clinical practice guideline for acute bacterial rhinosinusitis in children and adults. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Apr 2012;54(8):e72-e112.
4. Juno J, Fowke KR, Keynan Y. Immunogenetic factors associated with severe respiratory illness caused by zoonotic H1N1 and H5N1 influenza viruses. Clinical & developmental immunology. 2012;2012:797180.
5. Horby P, Nguyen NY, Dunstan SJ, Baillie JK. The role of host genetics in susceptibility to influenza: a systematic review. PloS one. 2012;7(3):e33180.
6. Arola M, Ruuskanen O, Ziegler T, et al. Clinical role of respiratory virus infection in acute otitis media. Pediatrics. Dec 1990;86(6):848-855.
7. Shvalko AD. [Features of whooping cough during the first 6 months of life]. Sovetskaia meditsina. Mar 1962;25:78-82.
8. Grover C. Images in clinical medicine. "Thumb sign" of epiglottitis. The New England journal of medicine. Aug 4 2011;365(5):447.
9. Eccles R, Jawad M, Jawad S, et al. Efficacy of a paracetamol-pseudoephedrine combination for treatment of nasal congestion and pain-related symptoms in upper respiratory tract infection. Current medical research and opinion. Dec 2006;22(12):2411-2418.
10. Arroll B, Kenealy T, Falloon K. Are antibiotics indicated as an initial treatment for patients with acute upper respiratory tract infections? A review. The New Zealand medical journal. Oct 17 2008;121(1284):64-70.