• In most people PVD is a slow progressive disease that presents with a history of claudication, extremity ulcers that do not heal, or rest pain.
• Patients with acute presentation usually present with a cold leg. The acute form of PVD is more likely to be seen in a patient with atrial fibrillation, recent MI or valvular heart disease.
• In the majority of people the sole presentation of PVD is intermittent claudication. In patients with aorto-iliac disease, this will manifest as pain in the buttock or thigh area while walking for a certain distance. In people with more distal disease the pain may occur in the calf. Predictably the symptoms in both cases will subside with the rest. These individuals usually do not complain of leg pain while standing, sitting or sleeping.
  Some patients with PVD will present with rest pain, which is more serious. The pain signals inadequate perfusion to the tissues. The ischemic pain is often aggravated with heart disease, low cardiac output, hypotension and leg elevation. The condition is often partially relieved by placing the leg in a dependent position so that the effects of gravity perfuse the leg.
• Many patients with PVD will also complain of erectile dysfunction. Presence of erectile dysfunction is felt to be an indicator for existence of both PVD and ischemic heart disease. Risk factors for erectile dysfunction include sedentary lifestyle, diabetes, obesity, mental stress and atherosclerotic disease.
  Presence of intermittent claudication, decreased or absent femoral pulses and impotence is known as Leriche syndrome. This syndrome is due to narrowing of the distal aorta or iliac arteries and signifies chronic PVD.
• Patient’s medication list may also be indicative of PVD. Use of aspirin and cilostazol are commonly used to treat patients with PVD.

Physical
Physical exam of a patient with PVD depends on whether the condition is acute or chronic. In a patient with an acutely cold leg the 5Ps include presence of:

• Paralysis
• Paresthesia
• Pulselessness
• Pain
• Pallor

• If the patient has an acutely cold limb, there may be mottling or livedo reticularis, cyanosis and the leg will feel cold to touch.
• Presence of paresthesia and paralysis indicate that there is impending limb threatening ischemia and urgent revascularization is necessary. No time should be wasted and a vascular consult be called immediately.
• Auscultation may reveal heart murmurs, palpate pulses in the carotid, abdomen, groin and behind the knee. Listen for bruits which may suggest turbulence and stenosis.
• Ask the patient to walk or exercise and palpate pulses again. Exercise normally causes decrease in pulses but they do recover within a few minutes. In patients with PVD, recovery of pulses is prolonged.
• Perform the Allen test to determine if the patient has evidence of restricted blood flow to the hand.
• Examine skin- which may have a shiny appearance and absence of hair. The skin may be fragile, with brittle nails. Ulcers may be present on the heel, sole or tips of the toes. Non-healing ulcers may be a clue for PVD.
• The involved extremity may have atrophy of the muscle.
• Measure the Ankle brachial index (ABI) using a Doppler machine over the posterior tibial artery and brachial artery. The patient must be supine when the test is done. Normal ABI is slightly more than 1, but if it is less than 0.5, it indicates severe PVD.
• Degree of pallor can be assessed subjectively at bed rest and with leg elevation.

• Pain

  […] for patients with chronic wound pain. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  When peripheral artery disease becomes severe, you may have: Impotence Pain and cramps at night Pain or tingling in the feet or toes, which can be so severe that even the weight of clothes or bed sheets is painful Pain that is worse when the leg is elevated [hoag.org]

  Our surgeons are experts at both minimally invasive procedures and open surgical techniques for all categories of PVD, including: Claudication (pain with walking) Rest pain (pain at rest) Gangrene or ulceration (critical limb ischemia) [utswmed.org]

  Pain at rest – As arterial conditions and diseases progress, pain occurs at rest. The pain is often located on the top of the foot and across the toes, worsened when feet/legs are elevated. [dekalbmedical.org]

  Muscle pain in the calves or thighs of one or both legs that occurs when walking, especially fast or uphill. Pain subsides with rest. [healthcentral.com]

• Falling

  Follow-up cardiac catheterization on sildenafil demonstrated significant left-to-right shunting (2.16:1) and a fall in pulmonary vascular resistance, making surgical correction possible. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Cardiovascular risk factors such high blood pressure, elevated cholesterol and others fall under the specialty of vascular medicine. [en.wikipedia.org]

  To join, call ACC Member Care at (800) 253-4636, ext. 5603 or check the box on your dues statement each Fall. [acc.org]

  The following are conditions that fall under the category of "Vascular Disease": Arterial Disease Peripheral Artery Disease Like the blood vessels of the heart (coronary arteries), your peripheral arteries (blood vessels outside your heart) also may develop [my.clevelandclinic.org]

• Limb Pain

  Complications of both PVD and PAD include poor wound healing, restricted mobility, limb pain, stroke, heart attack and loss of limb. [nm.org]

• Nausea

  Clinical features include headache; nausea; vomiting, nuchal rigidity, variable neurological deficits and reduced mental status. [icd9data.com]

  “Symptoms include pain in the area, weakness, clammy skin, dizziness, nausea and sudden collapse.” Risk Factors “Elevated risk for nearly all vascular diseases comes from lifestyle and hereditary factors,” notes Dr. Irvan. [geisinger.org]

  […] in kidney function include increase or decrease in urination edema—swelling, usually in the legs, feet, or ankles and less often in the hands or face drowsiness or tiredness generalized itching or numbness dry skin headaches weight loss appetite loss nausea [niddk.nih.gov]

• Vascular Disease

  Summary What are vascular diseases? Your vascular system is your body's network of blood vessels. [nlm.nih.gov]

  In the case of a peripheral vascular disease the physical exam consists in checking the blood flow in the legs.[15][16] Treatment[edit] Peripheral vascular disease-ulcer Treatment varies with the type of vascular disease; in the case of renal artery disease [en.wikipedia.org]

  Types of Peripheral Vascular Disease Peripheral Vascular Disease Signs and Symptoms Diagnosis of Peripheral Vascular Disease Peripheral Vascular Disease Causes Risk Factors of Peripheral Vascular Disease Peripheral Vascular Disease Prevention Peripheral [baptisthealth.com]

  Risk factors of peripheral vascular disease Risk factors for peripheral vascular disease include: Diabetes – this is the most significant risk factor Cigarette smoking Advancing age Family history of peripheral vascular disease, stroke or coronary artery [betterhealth.vic.gov.au]

• Heart Disease

  Diseases under the heart disease umbrella include blood vessel diseases, such as coronary artery disease; heart rhythm problems (arrhythmias); and heart defects you're born with (congenital heart defects), among others. [play.google.com]

  Some examples of cardiovascular diseases include ischemic heart disease, heart valve disease, cardiomyopathies, peripheral artery disease, congenital heart disease, and vascular disease of the kidneys. This study is located in Bethesda, Maryland. [nhlbi.nih.gov]

  The increased vascular disease mortality in IFG stage 2 was attributable to ischemic stroke, but not ischemic heart disease or hemorrhagic stroke in Korean adults. © 2017 American Heart Association, Inc. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  […] long QT syndrome and the other channelopathies, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and the other cardiomyopathies, coronary heart disease, hyperlipidemias, heart failure, pulmonary hypertension, and the aortopathies. [cveducation.mayo.edu]

• Hypertension

  METHODS: In 6191 hypertensive patients with clinically manifest vascular disease, we evaluated the risk of subsequent vascular events and mortality between patients with controlled hypertension, uncontrolled hypertension, controlled aRH, and uncontrolled [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Pulmonary venous hypertension is usually caused by poorly controlled systemic hypertension and congestive heart failure. [brighamandwomens.org]

• Heart Failure

  Heart failure Heart failure, sometimes called congestive heart failure, means the heart isn’t pumping blood as well as it should. Heart failure does not mean that the heart stops beating — that’s a common misperception. [heart.org]

  Diet and Congestive Heart Failure Congestive heart failure (CHF) occurs when the heart does not pump efficiently and does not deliver enough oxygen to your body. Learn how diet can lead to CHF. [ucsfhealth.org]

  Pulmonary venous hypertension is usually caused by poorly controlled systemic hypertension and congestive heart failure. [brighamandwomens.org]

  Heart Failure & Transplant UChicago Medicine is a leader in heart failure care, offering innovative methods for treating failing hearts. [uchospitals.edu]

• Chest Pain

  For instance, coronary artery disease can cause chest pain or a feeling of pressure in your chest. Symptoms of carotid artery disease may include dizziness, a loss of balance, or a severe headache. [umcvc.org]

  Blood flow to the heart can slow down or stop, and this can cause chest pain (angina), shortness of breath, heart attack, or other symptoms. This is known as coronary artery disease. [hackensackumc.org]

  Cardiovascular disease generally refers to conditions that involve narrowed or blocked blood vessels that can lead to a heart attack, chest pain (angina) or stroke. [play.google.com]

  Angina is a blockage in coronary (heart) arteries that causes chest pain. Claudication is caused by a blockage in arteries supplying the legs. Buerger's Disease affects smaller blood vessels to supply fingers and toes. [study.com]

  Symptoms of Pulmonary Hypertension Progressive fatigue Shortness of breath Chest pain or pressure during activity (angina) Dizzy spells that may occur during activity or exercise Fainting Ankle or leg swelling (edema) Increased heart rate (tachycardia [brighamandwomens.org]

• Leg Weakness

  Possible symptoms include: Hair loss on the feet and legs. Intermittent claudication – the thigh or calf muscles may feel pain when walking or climbing stairs; some individuals complain of painful hips. Leg weakness. [medicalnewstoday.com]

  Other symptoms of peripheral vascular disease include buttock pain, numbness or tingling in the legs, weakness, burning or aching pain in the feet or toes while resting, a sore on a leg or a foot that will not heal, one or both legs or feet feel cold [emedicinehealth.com]

• Blister

  A blister may form and may contain blood. If the blister is bothersome, you may take the following steps: clean the blister with alcohol and nick the blister top with a clean needle. Gently press out the fluid and/or blood with a clean tissue. [childrens.com]

  Side effects include pain, erythema, blisters, possible dyspigmentation (particularly in darker skin types), and scarring if too aggreessive. [dermatologyadvisor.com]

  The warts are small blisters that appear usually on the hands or under the feet (so called verrucas). You may see them in groups or a linear patter. They are often slightly raised, have hard edges and softer centers. [firstderm.com]

  It is uncomfortable and may result in blistering for several day or weeks. Success is in the order of 70% after 3–4 months of regular freezing. A hard freeze using liquid nitrogen might cause a permanent white mark or scar. [dermnetnz.org]

• Stroke

  The increased vascular disease mortality in IFG stage 2 was attributable to ischemic stroke, but not ischemic heart disease or hemorrhagic stroke in Korean adults. © 2017 American Heart Association, Inc. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Strokes are one of the most common types of vascular diseases, especially for aging Americans. A stroke occurs when blood flow to the brain is stopped because of a blockage in the arteries or a broken blood vessel. [geisinger.org]

  Stroke An ischemic stroke (the most common type of stroke) occurs when a blood vessel that feeds the brain gets blocked, usually from a blood clot. When the blood supply to a part of the brain is cut off, some brain cells will begin to die. [heart.org]

• Headache

  Because rs9349379 increases ET-1 production, this genetic variant could explain the co-occurrence of coronary artery disease with migraine headache, cervical artery dissection, fibromuscular dysplasia, and hypertension. [sciencedaily.com]

  Recent studies have demonstrated an association between migraine headaches and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The attributable mortality risk for migraine-induced stroke is very low. [ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

  Symptoms of carotid artery disease may include dizziness, a loss of balance, or a severe headache. [umcvc.org]

  Clinical features include headache; nausea; vomiting, nuchal rigidity, variable neurological deficits and reduced mental status. [icd9data.com]

• Excitement

  He describes the exciting new, minimally invasive treatments that are available now or coming soon to the Cardiovascular Surgery program at Stanford Health Care. Learn More: Ronald Dalman, MD: https://stanfordhealthcare.org/doctor... [youtube.com]

  Raynaud's Phenomenon consists of spasms of the small arteries of the fingers, and sometimes, the toes, brought on by exposure to cold or excitement. Buerger's Disease most commonly affects the small and medium sized arteries, veins, and nerves. [my.clevelandclinic.org]

  Raynaud's phenomenon (Raynaud's disease or Raynaud's syndrome) When you're cold or excited, the small arteries of your fingers and your toes may twitch or cramp. [webmd.com]

  A new generation of drug-eluting stents is especially exciting, since a drug is attached to the metal sleeve that dissolves into the blood and prevents growth factors acting to develop scar tissue. The rate of restenosis has decreased. [emedicinehealth.com]

Laboratory Studies
Blood work required in the work up of a patient with PVD includes:

• CBC
• Electrolytes
• Renal function to assess kidney function
• Lipid profile
• Coagulation factors
• ECG to look for arrhythmias, MI
• CRP, homocysteine and interleukin 6

Imaging Studies

• The role of plain x-rays is limited.
• The first study of choice is Doppler ultrasound, which can assess flow and site of occlusion. The technique can be used to assess both the lower and upper extremity and the neck. The quality of the signal may reveal a clue to the type of obstruction but is often unable to differentiate between embolic and thrombotic disease.
• MRI is not very useful for the extremities but does provide high detail for the large vessels like the aorta. MRI is also not available on an emergency basis and is also expensive.
• CT angiography is now widely used to assess patients with PVD. Contrast is still required but the images are much superior to an MRI. All patients should have renal function assessed prior to use of contrast.
• The gold standard for investigation of patients with PVD is the angiogram. It requires the use of dye and allows to localize the atherosclerosis and assess number of vessels involved. The angiogram can help determine whether the cause of the extremity is due to embolic or atherosclerotic disease Angiography is necessary when endovascular stenting is planned. The downside to angiography is the use of dye and need for bed rest for at least 6 hours after the procedure.

Other Tests
Transcutaneous oximetry is also used to assess degree of perfusion in PVD. The technique is being used in outpatient clinics to assess wound healing before and after surgery.

The treatment of PVD is multidisciplinary and divided into acute and chronic management [5][6].

Acute ichemia

When a patient presents with an acutely cold leg, the treatment is emergency revascularization.  When a patient presents with a cold leg to the ED, attention should first be directed to the ABCs. Two large bore IVs should be inserted and routine blood work is necessary. Because some of the patients may be on blood thinners, a coagulation profile is necessary. If the patient has an acutely cold leg, heparin should be started immediately. The heparin must be administered intravenously and the PTT should be maintained at 1.5-2 times normal. This should be followed by an ultrasound duplex test if there are no pulses palpable. The vascular surgeon must be notified immediately for further care. Most patients require some type of pain medication.

• In some cases where the patient is not a candidate for surgery, a thrombolytic agent may be used; the type of thrombolytic agent depends on physician preference and experience. Sometimes the radiologist can place a catheter just above the site of occlusion and direct thrombolytic therapy can be administered. The biggest contraindication to thrombolytic therapy is active internal bleeding, recent surgery or trauma.
• In most cases, surgeons perform an embolectomy under local anesthesia. The procedure requires removal of the blood clot via a small groin incision with a special balloon as instrument.
• Once the patient is stable, the cause of the emboli is worked up. This may mean obtaining an ECHO and ruling out atrial fibrillation.

Chronic management

Once an individual has been diagnosed with PVD, the treatment involves treating the risk factors and causes [7]:

• Smoking cessation is highly recommended. Smoking cessation can lead to improvement in leg symptoms, decrease risk of extremity amputation and improve patency of grafts after revascularization. Smoking cessation also reduces risk of cardiovascular events. Thus the patient should be actively encouraged to stop smoking by referral to a smoking cessation program, and use of nicotine replacement products.
• Managing Diabetes Mellitus: Blood sugars must be aggressively controlled as such an approach has been shown to lower risk of cardiac events and microvascular complications.
• Treating hyperlipidemia: since high levels of lipids can worsen atherosclerosis, treatment of dyslipidemia is recommended. The aim should be to attain a target LDL level of less than 100 mg/dl and a TG level of less than 150mg/day. Statins should be started as they have been shown to improve pain free ambulation. Niacin or fibrates may be an option for patients with elevated levels of triglycerides.
• Hypertension Treatment: Hypertension must be controlled in patients with PVD. The drugs of choice for treatment of hypertension include the ACE inhibitors, thiazide diuretics, beta blockers and calcium channel blockers. Both ACE inhibitors and beta blockers have been shown to lower the incidence of new coronary events in patients with PVD. However, when starting ACE inhibitors in patients with PVD, renal function must be closely monitored.
• Antiplatelet Treatment: There is good evidence showing that antiplatelet agents can lower the risk of an MI, stroke or vascular death in patients with PVD. Current guidelines recommend use of aspirin or Clopidogrel in patients with PVD. Ticlopidine can also be used but because of its adverse effects like thrombocytopenia and neutropenia, it is not used as much. There is no good evidence to suggest that dual antiplatelet therapy is better than a single agent. The treatment is lifelong [8].
• Exercise: All patients with PVD should be encouraged to walk as this has shown to improve collateral circulation and relieve leg symptoms.
• Drug therapy: The reversible phosphodiesterase inhibitor, cilostazol, is the only approved medication for PVD patients. It has been shown to promote vasodilatation and inhibit platelet aggregation. The drug has been found to be superior to pentoxifylline for treatment of claudication. Common adverse effects of cilostazol include diarrhea, gastric upset and headache. The drug is contraindicated in patients with heart failure.
• Pentoxifylline is a methylxanthine derivative that has been shown to reduce blood viscosity and has anti-inflammatory effects; it has only a small benefit in patients with intermittent claudication.
• Endovascular Interventions: For isolated lesions of the arteries, endovascular stenting and angioplasty is now an option. Percutaneous angioplasty carries a much lower morbidity than open surgery. Stents appear to remain patent for longer periods when used in larger vessels like the iliac arteries. For smaller vessels like the tibial artery, the patency rates with stents are not great. Restenosis is a common problem when stents are used in vessels below the knee. Today endovascular procedure is a great option for patients who are not candidate for bypass surgery.
• Surgery: Surgery is recommended when there is risk of tissue loss, non-healing wounds and the lifestyle is restricted. Surgery is always attempted to preserve the ischemic limb. There are many types of procedures used treat PVD. The type of procedure depends on the location of lesion, type of lesion and patient morbidity. Some vascular procedures can be performed under regional anesthesia [9][10].
• For those with critical artery narrowing, the surgeon may perform a bypass or an endarterectomy. For above knee bypass, the surgeon may use a vein or prosthetic graft. For vascular disease below the knee, saphenous vein is usually used as a bypass conduit. Bypass for atherosclerotic disease does carry a mortality rate of 1-4%. Patients need to be thoroughly worked up to ensure that they can withstand the stress of surgery. MI is a common complication in the postoperative period.

The prognosis of patients with PVD is guarded. Because the disease is progressive, eventually most patients develop symptoms. PVD is also associated with a high risk of myocardial ischemia and stroke because the same pathology is present in these disorders. For individuals with mild disease, there may be no symptoms but for those with severe disease, the individual may develop impotence, intermittent claudication, non healing ulcers, decreased exercise endurance, limitation in lifestyle and rest pain. Those with severe leg ischemia may end up with above or below knee amputations. Even with surgical therapy, complications are common and patency rates of grafts are not overly impressive. If the individual with PVD does not change his/her lifestyle, then the morbidity and mortality rates are high [4].

The cause of PVD is multifactorial and includes the following:

• Smoking
• Hyperlipidemia
• Diabetes mellitus
• Hyperviscosity syndrome
• Trauma
• Surgical complication
• Autoimmune disorders
• Vasculitis
• Coagulopathies
• A rare cause of PVD is radiation therapy

PVD is quite common not only in North America but across the globe. In the USA alone, it is estimated that there are nearly 10 million people with PVD. The disorder is often seen after the 5th decade of life and carries a high morbidity. With the aging population, it is estimated that a number of affected people with PVD are also going to significantly increase. PVD occurs with equal frequency in men and women but the outcomes in diabetic women tend to be worse. The primary reason for this are the small sized blood vessels in females which can be readily obstructed by atherosclerotic plaques.
Among races, PVD is slightly more common in African Americans compared to Caucasians and Hispanics. The ethnic susceptibility is likely related to higher prevalence of hypertension, diabetes and obesity in this population. Unlike many other disorders, PVD is often neglected and not recognized. In addition, there is gross misuse and abuse of unproven and unrecognized therapies. Several studies indicate that in primary practice, PVD is often not diagnosed or recognized despite presence of risk factors. This often leads to progression of disease, which ultimately results in extremity amputation. Even when the disorder is recognized, it is not thoroughly worked up and the treatment is often poorly managed.

PVD occurs primarily because of atherosclerosis. The process starts with deposition of cholesterol in the intimal layers of the vessel. Over time, this develops into a cholesterol plaque covered with a fibrous layer. As the size of the plaque grows it can obstruct blood flow distally. Sometimes, the atherosclerotic plaque can rupture and promote thrombosis or generate emboli which occlude blood vessels distally. Atherosclerosis can affects all types of vessels but is most common at points where blood vessels bifurcate. Along these areas there is turbulence and stasis, which promotes shear stress and injury. Atherosclerotic disease is usually segmental in distribution but does vary from patient to patient. When the progression of atherosclerosis is slow, the small and medium sized blood vessels get occluded and numerous collateral vessels develop.

The symptoms of PVD occur when the blood vessel is occluded by thrombus, emboli or acute trauma that compromises tissue perfusion. Overall, atherosclerosis affects the blood vessels in the lower extremities more frequently than those in the upper extremities. Risk factors that predispose patients to formation of thrombosis include

• Low blood flow
• Aortic dissection
• Aneurysm formation
• Low cardiac output
• Hypotension
• Sepsis
• Presence of bypass grafts
• Any underlying atherosclerotic disease

Sudden occlusion of a blood vessel is usually due to emboli, which in most cases are from the heart. Other sources of emboli include foreign bodies, tumor or atheromatous fragments from other blood vessels (eg abdominal aorta). The most common sites where atherosclerosis occurs and have a high tendency to promote thrombosis include:

• Femoral arteries
• Iliac arteries
• Aorta
• Popliteal artery
• Carotid artery

The presentation of a patient with atherosclerosis depends on the nature of the occlusion, development of collateral circulation and presence of symptoms. In general, emboli tend to have high morbidity as the patient has not had time to develop collateral circulation. In either case, both emboli and thrombosis results in decreased tissue perfusion to the distal vessel.

Individuals who have moderate to severe PVD can be managed as outpatients but need close follow up and monitoring. All patients with PVD should be warned about the harmful effects of smoking and types of physical activities that lead to injury. The individual should be told to avoid cold environments but when going out and should dress warm. They should be educated that many cold and cough medications can act as vasoconstrictors and limit blood supply to the extremity.

Use of illicit drugs like cocaine should be avoided as it may lead to increased arterial tone. In addition, beta-blockers may exacerbate the symptoms of claudication.

After discharge the patient must be started on antiplatelet agents to prevent worsening of PVD and decrease risk of cardiovascular events. In addition, the patient must be told to change lifestyle, discontinue smoking and exercise regularly.

Statins are now prescribed to lower cholesterol and triglycerides preliminary evidence indicates that statins may slow the progression of atherosclerosis.

Peripheral vascular disease (PVD) is a very common medical disorder, which has the potential to lead to loss of limb or even life, if not properly treated. PVD, when moderate to severe, can lead to decrease in tissue perfusion, and this in turn can lead to pain, non-healing ulcers and decreased ability to walk. While in most cases PVD is due to progressive atherosclerosis, in other cases, it may be due to emboli. Millions of people have varying degrees of PVD, but the disorder can suddenly become acute and the patient will present to the ED with a cold extremity. Immediate treatment is required when treating acute limb occlusion as it can result in very high morbidity and mortality [1] [2] [3].

PVD is common in many people who smoke, have diabetes or hyperlipidemia. The disorder results in narrowing of the blood vessels, which decreases blood supply to the tissues. Almost any organ can be affected in PVD but the most common are the kidneys, legs, and brain. Risk factors for PVD include smoking, diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia and an unhealthy diet. The disorder results in cholesterol deposition over the blood vessels, which gradually leads to narrowing or obstruction of blood flow. The patient may present with pain in the buttock area while walking or in severe cases may present with nonhealing ulcers in the leg, blush and cold legs and rest pain. The diagnosis is made by ultrasound and invasive studies like the CT scan. The treatment depends on the degree and severity of the disease. In patients who suddenly develop a cold leg, immediate surgery is required to remove the blood clot. In those with chronic disease, one should avoid smoking, control blood sugars, ensure better control of blood pressure, exercise and eat a healthy diet. Drugs like aspirin may be useful in some patients.

1. Benitez E, Sumpio BJ, Chin J, Sumpio BE. Contemporary assessment of foot perfusion in patients with critical limb ischemia. Semin Vasc Surg. 2014 Mar;27(1):3-15.

2. Patel MR, Conte MS, Cutlip DE, et al. Evaluation and treatment of patients with lower extremity peripheral artery disease: consensus definitions from Peripheral Academic Research Consortium (PARC). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015 Mar 10;65(9):931-41.

3. Society for Vascular Surgery Lower Extremity Guidelines Writing Group, Conte MS, Pomposelli FB, Clair DG, Geraghty PJ, McKinsey JF, Mills JL, Moneta GL, Murad MH, Powell RJ, Reed AB, Schanzer A, Sidawy AN; Society for Vascular Surgery. Society for Vascular Surgery practice guidelines for atherosclerotic occlusive disease of the lower extremities: management of asymptomatic disease and claudication. J Vasc Surg. 2015 Mar;61(3 Suppl):2S-41S.

4. Alahdab F, Wang AT, Elraiyah TA, et al. A systematic review for the screening for peripheral arterial disease in asymptomatic patients. J Vasc Surg. 2015 Mar;61(3 Suppl):42S-53S.

5. Malgor RD, Alalahdab F, Elraiyah TA, et al. A systematic review of treatment of intermittent claudication in the lower extremities. J Vasc Surg. 2015 Mar;61(3 Suppl):54S-73S.

6. Gulati A, Botnaru I, Garcia LA. Critical limb ischemia and its treatments: a review. J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino). 2015 Apr 14.

7. Tu C, Das S, Baker AB, Zoldan J, Suggs LJ. Nanoscale Strategies: Treatment for Peripheral Vascular Disease and Critical Limb Ischemia. ACS Nano. 2015 Apr 10.

8. Bedenis R, Lethaby A, Maxwell H, Acosta S, Prins MH. Antiplatelet agents for preventing thrombosis after peripheral arterial bypass surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Feb 19;2:CD000535.

9. Menard MT, Farber A. The BEST-CLI trial: a multidisciplinary effort to assess whether surgical or endovascular therapy is better for patients with critical limb ischemia. Semin Vasc Surg. 2014 Mar;27(1):82-84.

10. Andrews KL, Houdek MT, Kiemele LJ. Wound management of chronic diabetic foot ulcers: from the basics to regenerative medicine. Prosthet Orthot Int. 2015 Feb;39(1):29-39.